*  >  >  *  *  >  E  *.  i  i  *  » . *•  >  > 


fci 


■ 


.•  V-  <s 

VyWs.  Wi  \£ 

■  •  i-  iXj  s o-  ■ 


?  -  V  ,  V  ; 

»  * 

•N  '  ."i  '  \ 


:::vVv  K:;*v;  •: 


>r’OVfy/y: 


v\; 


.  I  ,.V.Vk! 


VV®V4V»V^S 


..AY  m  »> 

m&Mm 1- 


"flTOKSI 


V 


V 


*r. 


\  ' 


V 


PERSIA!  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


PERSIA 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS 


V 


A  NARRATIVE  OF  TRAVEL  AND  RESIDENCE 

1871-1885 

x  z  Y 


BY 

V 

JAMES  BASSETT 

*  MISSIONARY  OF  THE  PRESBYTpJ^AN  BOARD 


/ 


z' 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 

1886 


COPYRIGHT,  l886,  BY 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 


GRANT  &  F AIRE  S, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


i 


\ 


/ 


PREFACE. 


The  name  Persia  is  not  known  to  the  people  inhabiting 
the  country  so  called  by  Europeans.  Persians  call 
their  land,  Eran.  This  name  is  evidently  from  Arya 
or  Ariya,  whence  we  have  the  form  Iranian  and  Iran. 
The  term  Persia  comes  to  us  from  the  Greeks,  who 

derived  it  from  the  term  Fars  or  Pars,  the  designation, 

✓ 

at  this  time,  of  a  province  of  Eran.  The  country 
called  Persia  has  been  designated  by  several  terms 
which  were  emblematic  only;  as,  “The  Land  of  Fire,” 
to  denote  the  worship  of  fire  ;  “  The  Land  of  the  Sun,” 
expressive  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  sunlight,  and  possibly 
in  allusion  to  the  reverence  paid  to  the  sun ;  “  The 
Land  of  the  Lion  and  the  Sun,”  since  the  flag  of  Persia 
has  the  device  of  the  sun  in  the  form  of  a  human  face 
peering  above  the  back  of  a  lion.  The  device  is  the 
symbol  of  intelligence,  light,  power  and  justice.  Per¬ 
sians  frequently  call  their  country,  “  Memlakate  Asna 
Asherain,”  or  the  Kingdom  of  the  Twelve,  meaning  by 
this  the  twelve  Imams  of  the  house  of  Ale. 


V 


VI 


PREFACE. 


The  traveller  in  that  land  will  find  in  all  the  people 
the  evidence  of  the  power  of  the  religious  system  bear¬ 
ing  this  name.  The  people  of  all  classes  invoke  the 
names  of  the  Imams.  The  dervishes  cry  these  names 
by  day  and  by  night ;  the  beggars  in  the  highways  ask 
alms  in  these  names,  and  the  shrines  of  the  Sayeds 
sanctify  many  a  hill  and  valley.  I  have  therefore  en¬ 
titled  this  book,  The  Land  of  the  Imams ,  considering 
the  term  an  appropriate  designation,  and  calculated 
to  call  attention  to  the  most  prominent  feature  of  the 
country  at  this  time. 

In  eleven,  chapters,  I  have  given  a  narrative  of  ex¬ 
tended  tours,  and  have  given  such  information  as 
seemed  to  be  most  profitable  and  interesting.  In  the 
remaining  five  chapters,  I  have  endeavoured  to  give,  in 
a  comprehensive  form,  information  obtained  in  the 
course  of  travel,  and  during  a  residence  of  eleven 1 
years  in  that  country.  My  sources  of  information, 
therefore,  have  been  my  own  observations.  So  far  as 
it  has  been  necessary  to  refer  to  the  past,  I  have  drawn 
chiefly  from  Persian  writers.  The  narrative  begins  in 
the  year  1871,  but  covers  any  changes  occurring  in 
the  state  of  the  country  to  the  close  of  1884.  In  the 
orthography  of  Persian  and  Arabic  names,  I  have  en¬ 
deavoured  to  adhere  to  the  Persian  and  Arabic  forms. 

1  This  term  is  exclusive  of  a  brief  period  when  the  writer  was  absent 
from  the  country. 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


In  some  instances  this,  however,  did  not  seem  to  be 
expedient. 

The  years  covered  by  these  pages  were  years  of 
some  important  changes  in  Persia.  It  has  been  my 
purpose  to  note  these  events ;  and  to  treat  of  several 
subjects  which  are  but  little  known  to  transient  tour¬ 
ists,  or  which  are  erroneously  stated  by  them,  if  re¬ 
ferred  to  at  all. 

The  map  has  been  prepared  by  the  author  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  publishers.  It  exhibits  the  routes 
travelled.  In  the  preparation  of  it,  special  attention 
has  been  given  to  details  of  the  eastern  border  of 
Persia. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Routes  to  Persia — Constantinople — The  Bosphorus — Pera — Galata 
— Scutari — Ancient  Chalcedon — Quays — Ancient  City — Antiqui¬ 
ties — St.  Sophia — Protestant  Missions — Americans — Voyage  to 
Trebizond — Black  Sea — Trebizond — Antiquity — Capture  by 
Goths — Fate  of  the  City — Population  of  the  Modern  City — 
Ancient  Structures — Commercial  Relations  of  the  City,  ...  i 


CHAPTER  II. 

Coast  of  the  Black  Sea— Roads  and  Distances — Customs  of  Travel 
— Cajavahs — Taktravan — Chavidars — Manner  of  Loading  a  Car¬ 
avan — Road  to  Gumish  Khanah — First  Manzil — Tent  Life — A 
Night  Encampment — Bulut  Dah  or  Village  of  the  Clouds — 
Mountain  Pass — Gumish  Khanah — Beyburt — The  Euphrates 
Valley,  or  Kara  Su — Illijah — Erzeroum — Antiquities — The  Plain 
— Climate — Present  Condition  of  the  City — Armenian  Establish¬ 
ment — American  Missionaries — Elassan  Kalah — Boundary  of 
Armenia  and  Kurdistan — Eastern  Branch  of  the  Euphrates — 
Hoshean — Ararat — Paskek — Kara  Kallesia  the  Black  Church — 
Troglodytes — Utch  Kallesia — The  Stage  to  Kizil  Diza — Yezdees 
— Principal  Tenets — Rites — Boundary  between  Turkey  and  Per¬ 
sia — The  Land  of  the  Shah — Descent  to  the  Plain  of  Khoy — 

Pa  Baba — Pass  to  the  Plain  of  Salmas — Plain  of  Salmas — Mis¬ 
sions  of  the  Plain — Pass  to  Gavalan — The  Plain  of  Oroomiah 
Sea  or  Lake — The  Shalie  Sea — The  Shores  of  the  Sea — Gavalan 
— Mission  Premises  and  Early  Enterprise — Ride  to  Oroomiah — 
Approach  to  the  City — Death  of  Mr.  Cochran, .  14 


IX 


X 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Oroomiah — Population  and  Races — Location  of  the  Missions — 
Environs — Climate,  etc. — Productions  of  the  Plain — Govern¬ 
ment  of  the  District — Ardashir  Khan — American  Missionaries 
— Summary  of  the  History  of  the  Nestorians — Patriarchate  of 
Mosul  and  Mar  Elias — Of  the  Mar  Shimoons — The  Chaldean 
Nestorians — Distinguishing  Tenets — Present  Condition  and 
Chief  Characteristics — Effect  of  Missionary  Effort — Statistics 
of  the  Mission  in  the  Thirty-fourth  year — Number  of  Nestorians 
— Ecclesiastical  Organizations — Condition  of  Persia  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  Missions  in  1871 — Language  used — Schools — Press _ 

Statistics — Stations  and  Out-stations — Method  of  Control,  ...  41 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Departure  from  Oroomiah — Gavalan — Salmas — Alekand — Dela- 
mon — Construction  of  the  Houses — Decoration  —  Kalasar — • 
Balakhanah — Kara  Tapa — Sheik  Walle — Course  to  Tabriz — 
Valley  of  the  Adje  Tchai — Distances — Diza  Khalel — Ale  Shah 
— Position  of  Tabriz — Aras  Road — Telegraph — H.  B.  M.  Con¬ 
sulate — Tabriz — Atropatene — Tavreez  and  Tauris— Tradition  of 
Zobaide — Legend  of  the  Cross — Armenians — Their  Schools — 
Church — Number  of  Armenians  in  the  Western  Diocese — From 
Tabriz  to  Vasbinge — Stations  to  Meana — Aspect  of  the  Country 
— Roads  and  Robbers — Punishments — Swift  Retribution — Turk¬ 
man  Tchai — Famine — Descent  to  Meana — Valley  of  the  Meana 
Tchai — The  Village  of  Meana — Suffering  from  Famine — Ascent 
of  the  Koflan  Kuh — Altitude — Description  of  the  Mountain — 

The  Kizil  Uzen — Road  to  Jemalabad — The  Village — Road  to 
Zengan — Sirtchem — Nikpey — The  Inn — Lutees  and  Amuse¬ 
ments — Valley  of  the  Uzen — Approach  to  Zengan — Mortality 
by  Famine  and  Disease — Importance  of  Zengan — Resistance  of 
the  Babees  in  Zengan, . . .  57 

CHAPTER  V. 

Zengan  to  Sultaneah — Palace  of  Fattah  Ale  Shah — Founding  of 
Sultaneah — Principal  Structures — Mausoleum  of  Mullah  Hassan 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


Kashe  Altitude  and  Position  of  Sultaneah — Route  to  Casveen 

Horumdarah— Famine — Abhar,  its  Location  and  History _ 

Unreasonable  Identification  with  Habor— Valley  and  Villages  of 
the  Kemah  Rud — Seadum — Tat — Road  to  Casveen — Wells  and 
Connaughts  Perils  of  Travel — Situation  of  Casveen — Gardens 

and  Productions — History— Population — Routes  to  Tehran _ 

Departure  from  Casveen — Night  Marches — Anxiety  of  the  Per¬ 
sians  and  Imaginary  Dangers — Haunts  of  the  Assassins _ The 

Story  of  Hassan — The  Name  Assassin — The  Kurdish  Warrior _ 

An  Episode — Kishlak  to  Tehran — Coal  Mines — Karaj The 

River  and  Village— Water  Course  to  Tehran— Road  from  Karaj 
to  Tehran— Approach  to  Tehran— Position  of  the  City— Posi¬ 
tion  of  Raghes  and  Ra— Entrance  to  Tehran— Situation— Rise 
to  Importance— Changes  in  the  City  and  its  Improvement— Gates 
—Desert  and  Aspect  of  the  Environs— Heat  and  Reptiles,  .  .  78 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Principal  Structuies  of  Tehran — Streets  and  Gates — Palace  of  the 

Sun — War  Department — King’s  College — King’s  Treasury _ 

King’s  Stables — Gardens — Gulishan — Lala  Zar  or  Garden  of 
Tulips — Tob  Maidon  or  Place  of  the  Cannon — Mosques  of 
Tehran— Names  of  Precincts— The  Bazaars— Soldiers— Water 
Public  Baths  British  Legation — Quarters  of  the  Armenians 
and  Jews — Poie  Kopak  the  Place  of  Execution — Palaces  of  the 

Shah  on  Shimron — Population  of  Tehran — Different  Races 

Origin  of  Jewish  Colony — The  Armenians — Graves  of  Euro¬ 
peans  Guebers  of  Tehran —  Power  of  Silence — Importance 
of  Tehran— Telegraph  Corps— The  Shah— Habits  of  Life— 
Charactei  Famine  in  Tehran — Relief — Mortality  among  the 

Jews> . . 102 

CHAPTER  VII. 

I 

Departure  for  Hamadan — March  by  Moonlight — Altitude  of  the 
Country— Khanabad  Ruins— Kushak— Pass  of  the  Karaghan 
Mountains — Bevaron— Altitude  of  the  Pass— Damavand _ Jour¬ 

ney  to  the  Armenian  Villages  of  Karaghan— Condition  of  the 


XII 


CONTENTS. 


Armenians — Armenian  Priest — Origin  of  the  Colony — From  Lar 
to  Nobaron — Pass  of  the  Yebel  Islam — From  Bevaron  to  Nobar- 
on — The  Village  of  Nobaron— Z£ra— River— Malagird— Victims 
of  Famine — Alvand — Village  of  Shevarin — Situation  of  Xlama- 
dan — Altitude  of  the  Plain  and  of  Alvand — Ancient  Cities — 
Dejoces — Ecbatana — Construction  of  the  City — Ancient  Splen¬ 
dour — Cyrus — Identity  of  Achmetha  and  Ecbatana — Destruction 
of  the  City  by  Tim  our- — Antiquities — Water  Courses — Mauso¬ 
leum  of  Avicinna — Population — Reduction  by  Famine  and 
Cholera — Protestants — Antiquity  of  the  Jewish  Colony  The 
Shrine  of  Esther  and  Mordecai — Condition  of  the  Armenians — 
Trade  of  Hamadan — Telegraph — From  Hamadan  to  Oroomiah 
— Kamkase  and  Chibooklee — Altitude  of  the  Country — Situa¬ 
tion  of  Senah — Departure  from  Senah — Kurdish  Villages — Souj 
Bolak — Sulduz — Country  between  Sulduz  and  Ravanduz — Mid¬ 
night  Manzil — Return  to  Seir — Tour  of  Mr.  Stocking  to  Mosul 
and  Death  of  Mrs.  Stocking — Departure  from  Oroomiah  for 
Tehran,  . . 119 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Journey  to  Ispahan — General  Features  of  the  Country— Kanara- 
gird — City  of  Koom — The  Mausoleum  of  Fatimak — Sinsin — 
Kashan— Plain  of  Ispahan— Entrance  to  the  City— Ride  toward 
Julfah — The  Zandah  Rud — Antiquity  of  Ispahan — Persian  His¬ 
tory — Population — Origin  of  the  Colony  of  Jews — Ruins — 
Bridges — Avenues — Maidone  Shah — Madrassahe  Shah — Chehar 
Bogh — Chehil  Sutun — Shaking  Minarets — The  River — Julfah — 
Character  of  the  Colony — Relation  to  the  Sufee  Kings — The 
Ecclesiastical  Establishment — The  Archbishop — Diocese  and 
Revenues — Roman  Catholic  Mission — Famine — Aid  to  Sufferers 
— Mr.  Bruce — His  Mission — Business  of  the  Armenians — Trade 
of  Ispahan — The  Governor — The  Sheik  al  Islam — Favourable 
Situation — Ruined  State  of  Ispahan  and  Julfah, . 145 

CHAPTER  IX. 

From  Tehran  to  the  Black  Sea — Routes — Ride  to  Casveen — Ride 
to  Mazarali — Chapar  and  Caravan — The  Hazan  Pass — From 


CONTENTS. 


XIII 


Haz&n  to  Poie  Chinar — Poie  Chinar — The  Shah  Rud,  or  King 

River — Treeless  and  Forest  Regions — Furious  Winds _ The 

Safeed  Rud — Olive  Groves — Rustumabad — Rice  fields  and 

Booths — From  Rustumabad  to  Kudum — The  People _ Their 

Dwellings — Herds  of  Cattle — Ride  to  Rasht — Country  between 
Rasht  and  Pere  Bazaar — Navigation  to  Anzile — The  Mord  Aub 

— Situation  of  Anzile — Persian  Ships  and  Russian  Control _ 

Mail  Steamers — The  Mechyle — Use  of  Petroleum  for  Fuel _ 

Astara  and  Lankoran — Natural  Harbour — Islands — Environs  of 
Baku  Customs — Appearance — Population  and  Importance _ 

Public  Buildings— Languages— Cape  —  Apsheran— Petroleum 

Wells — Fire  Temple — Transportation  of  Oil — Water  of  Baku _ 

Russian  Post — Country  between  Baku  and  Shirwan — Shirwan 
and  Shamakha  Earthquakes — Sargis — The  sect  of  the  Molakans 
— Routes  to  Tiflis — Descent  from  the  Caucasus — Rivers — Aug 
Tchai — River  Cyrus  or  Kur — Gangah — Gessan— Situation  of 
Tiflis — Altitude  and  Climate — Antiquity — Population — Empo¬ 
rium— From  Tiflis  to  Pote— Climate  of  Pote,  and  Mortality— 
Batoum — Russian  Customs — Railway  to  Baku — Decline  of  Tiflis 
— People  of  the  Caucasus — Return  to  Tehran, . 


CHAPTER  X. 

From  Tehran  to  Mashhad — Plain  of  Varomene — Site  of  Raghes 
— Arsacia — The  Jorje  Rud — Awanakafe — Passes  of  the  Elburz 
and  Roads — The  Sardarak — Ruins — Conjectures  as  to  the  Pass 
called  the  Caspian  Gates — Singular  Speech  of  Simnon — Water 
Supply — The  Kalah  of  Losgird — Simnon — The  Mosque  of 
Fattah  Ale  Shah — The  Plain  of  Damgan — Ride  to  Dah  Mullah 
— To  Shah  Rud — To  Khairabad — The  Azon — Maia  Mai — Meon 
Dasht — The  Cisterns — Narrative  of  Captivity  among  Turkmans 
— Situation  of  Meon  Dasht — March  to  Abasabad — The  Springs 
—  1  he  Chasm — Situation  of  Abasabad — Curious  Marriage  Cus¬ 
tom — Route  between  Abasabad  and  Mazenan — The  Kara  Su — 
Sadrabad — Mazenan — Mahr — To  Sabzewar — City  of  Sabzewar 
— Dangers  of  Travel  by  Caravan — Missionaries  of  the  Bab — 
Ride  to  Zafaran — To  Shore  Aub — The  Station  Shore  Aub — Road 
to  Nishapoor — Cheman — Plain  of  Nishapoor — The  City — Antiq- 


159 


/  • 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


uity  of  the  Place — Schools — Turquoise  Mines — Persian  Serpent 
and  Scorpion  Charmers,  . 18c 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Leave  Nishapoor — Kadam  Gah — Torook — Transportation  of  dead 
bodies — The  country  about  Mashhad — Revenues  of  the  Shrine — 
Salutations  of  the  Pilgrims — Aspect  of  the  City — Burial  Place 
of  Haroun  al  Rasheed — The  Harem — Its  Construction  and 
Decoration — Expenditure  of  Funds — Miracles — Jins  or  Demons 
— Power  of  the  Mullahs — Sacred  Character  of  the  Asylum — 
Number  of  Pilgrims — Massacre  of  Jews  and  their  Conversion  to 
Islam — The  Synagogue  Tablet — Character  and  Occupation  of 
the  Jews — The  Country  to  Sarakhs — The  Turkmans  in  Mashhad 
— Natural  Resources  of  this  Section  of  the  Country — Importance 
of  Mashhad — Climate  and  Health — Country  of  the  Turkmans 
— Relative  Strength  of  the  Tribes — The  Takahs  as  Compared 
with  other  Tribes — Country  inhabited  by  Takahs — Present  Town 
of  Merv — Gaghatai — Superstition  and  Jewish  Exorcists — Gov¬ 
ernment  and  Morals — Turkman  Horses — Kizil  Bashees — Dele¬ 
gation  of  Turkmans  in  Tehran — Ravages  of  the  Russian  Border 
and  the  Caspian  Coast  by  Turkmans — The  Situation  in  1880 
— Advance  of  Russians  and  the  Situation  in  1885 — The  Present 
and  Prospective  Railway  to  Panj  Dali — To  the  Indus — Effect  on 
Persia, . .  .  218 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Area  of  Persia — Desert  of  Khorasan — The  Interior  of  Persia — 

The  Shores  of  the  Seas  and  Altitudes — Mountain  Ranges — 
Highest  Peaks — Intermediate  Mountains — Rivers — Irrigation — 

Heat — Changes  of  Seasons  and  the  Diseases  of  the  Country — 

The  Caspian  Coast — Soil — Productions — Cattle  and  Horses — 
Connaughts  and  their  Cost — Gardens — Agricultural  Implements 
— Raising  of  Stock — Coal  and  Minerals — Population — Roving 
Bands — State  of  Civilization — Languages — Literature — Scribes 
— Desci'iption  of  a  Persian  Book — Internal  Improvements — Com¬ 
merce — Cost  of  Living — Causes  Preventing  Improvement — Im¬ 
ports — Exports — Carpets — Persian  Earthenware  and  Glass — Silk 


CONTENTS. 


xv 


and  Velvet — Steel — Old  Work — Porcelain — Rare  Articles — 
Bricks  and  Masonry — Engraving — Hatim — Kalamdans — Mills 
— Wine — Process  of  Manufacture — Arak  or  Brandy — Unintoxi¬ 
cating  Drink — Condition  of  the  People — Social  Customs — Salu¬ 
tations — The  Sandals — Entertainment  of  Guests — Baths — Toilet 
of  an  Old  School  Persian — Habits  of  Life — Meals — Drunken¬ 
ness — Penalty  for — The  Precepts  of  Mohammed  as  to  Drink — 

Use  of  Opium — Sherbets  and  Drinks — Food — Women  in  Public 
— Social  Entertainments  of  Women — Of  Men — Marriage  Rites 
— Funerals  —  Amusements — Persian  Houses  —  Palaces — Anda- 
rune  and  Berune — Musical  Instruments  and  Musical  Taste — 
Music  Excluded  from  Worship — Vocal  Music — Introduction  of 
Foreign  Customs, . 248 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Government  of  Persia — Absolute  Authority  of  the  Shah — 
Officers  of  the  Government — Army — Administration — Govern¬ 
ors — Assessments— The  Sar  or  Capitation  Tax — The  Mall — The 
Land  Tax — Begaree — Revenue — Tenure  of  Land — Title  Deeds 
— The  Governor  or  Hoykim — Sadr  Azam — Personal  Liberty  of 
the  Ryot — The  Three  Departments  of  Government — The  Oorf — 

The  Sharah — Appeal — Relations  of  the  Two  Courts — Mode  of 
Trial  —  Punishments  —  Sanctuary  —  Where  afforded — Price  of 
Blood — Imprisonment  for  Debt — Bankrupts — Resistance  to  the 
Shah  and  Protection  by  Asylum — The  Currency — Postal  System 
— Bribery — Slavery — Laws  Regulating  Marriage — Rights  of  the 
Covenanted  or  Ahdah  and  of  the  Sekah — Part  performed  by 
the  Mullah — Abject  state  of  the  Harij  or  Mutee  Islam — Practice 
in  Hamadan — Particular  Grievances  of  the  Mutee  or  Alien  Sub¬ 
ject — Rights  of  Foreigners  determined  by  Treaty, . 274 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

/  . 

Religion  of  the  King  and  Ruling  Races — The  Athna  Asherain — 
Review  of  the  Rise  of  the  Sect — Abu  Beker  and  the  three  first 
Khalafahs — Ale  and  his  Assassination — Moaveyah — The  Dynasty 
of  the  Ammeyah — Rise  of  the  Abasidees — Condition  of  the 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


House  of  Ale  during  the  Reigns  of  the  Khalafahs — Princes  of 
the  House  of  Buyah — Suljuks — Hassan  Saha  and  the  Assassins 
— Division  of  the  Country — With  the  Ata  Begs — Mogul  Princes 
and  their  Toleration — The  Twelve  Imams  proclaimed  by  Khoda- 
band — Tamouridees — Rise  of  the  House  of  Ismael  or  the  Sufees 
— The  King  of  the  Sheahs — Supremacy  of  the  Sect  of  the  Athna 
Asherain — Distinguishing  Tenet  of  the  Sect — Doctrine  as  to  the 
Mahde  or  the  Riser — The  Babees — Attempt  to  Assassinate  the 
Shah — Death  of  the  Conspirators — Ale  Allahees  — Curious  Rites 
of — Sheikees  and  Mutasharahees — Sufees — Their  Philosophical 
System — Relation  of  the  Founder  of  the  Sufee  Dynasty  to  the 
Imams — Doctrinal  Development  of  the  Sect  of  the  Twelve — 
Religious  Literature  of  the  Twelve — The  Sheah  call  to  Prayer — 
Divine  Nature  of  Ale  Claimed — Vicarious  Death — The  Sayeds 
— Superstitions  of  the  People — The  Most  Holy  Shrines — Cele¬ 
brated  Schools  of  the  Sect  of  the  Twelve — Principal  Ceremonies 
— The  Takeahs  and  the  Tazeahs — Public  Assemblies — Religious 
Orders — Mullahs — Imam  Juma — Peesh  Namaz — Wais — Mujta- 
heed — Revenues — Dervishes — Privileges  of  the  Sayeds — Hon¬ 
orary  Titles  Conferred  on  Mullahs — Theological  Schools — Their 
Support, . . . 292 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Remnants  of  Captive  Races,  or  the  Non-Mohammedan  Sects  of  Per¬ 
sia — The  Guebers — £ardosht  or  Zoroaster — Earliest  Condition 
of  Zoroastrianism — Number  of  the  Guebers — Chief  Tenets — 
Towers  of  Silence — Public  Worship — Future  Punishment — 
Morals — Virtues — The  Jews  of  Persia — Number — Religious 
Affinities — Corruption  of  Religion  and  Language — Disreputable 
Pursuits — The  Armenians — Number — Origin — Skeptics — Antiq¬ 
uity  of  the  Armenian  Race — The  Ecclesiastical  Rule — Introduc¬ 
tion  of  Christianity  to  the  Country — Gregory- — Ecclesiastical 
System — Separation  from  the  Catholic  Church — Invention  of 
Letters  and  Translation  of  the  Scriptures — Orders  of  the  Clergy 
— Ordination  and  Marriage  of  the  Clergy — Doctrinal  System — 
Feast  and  Fast  Days — Marriage — Armenian  Colonies — The  Cap¬ 
tives  of  1603 — Passage  of  the  Aras — Settlements — Priests — In¬ 
fluence  of  Armenians — Distinguishing  Features  of  the  Race,  .  31 1 


I 


CONTENTS. 


XVII 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

Mission  Establishments  in  Persia— Missions  in  1870— In  1884— 
Question  as  to  the  Direction  of  Missionary  Effort— Problem  as 
to  the  Use  of  the  Persian  Language— Prejudices  of  the  Sects— 
Testimony  of  Figures— First  Schools— Public  Worship— School 
for  Jews— Circulation  of  Scriptures— Influence  with  the  Persian 
Government— Medical  Department— The  Mission  in  Tabriz— 
The  Mission  in  Hamadan — Interest  among  the  Jews — Organi¬ 
zation  of  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Persia  Missions— Bible 

Agencies  Statistics  of  all  the  American  Missions  in  Persia _ 

The  Chief  Obstacles  to  Mission  Work- The  Religious  Liberty 
of  Non-Mohammedans  declared— Restrictions  Imposed  by  the 
Archbishop— Misrepresentations  of  the  Missionaries— Ostracism 
of  Protestants— Persecution  of  Jews  in  Hamadan— Similar  Op¬ 
position  in  Oroomiah— The  Law  of  Islam  as  to  Apostasy— No 
Rights  Secured  by  Treaty — The  Unrestricted  Sale  of  the  Scrip- 
tuies  Publication  in  Persian — Fanaticism — Unsettled  Faith  of 
the  People— First  Representative  of  United  States  Government 
to  the  Court  of  Persia— American  Missionaries— Their  Protection 
—Benefits  accruing  to  from  Influence  of  United  States  Minister,  327 


/ 


/ 


PERSIA: 

THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Routes  to  Persia — Constantinople— The  Bosphorus— Pera—Galata— 

Scutari — Ancient  Chalcedon — Quays — Ancient  City — Antiquities _ 

St.  Sophia — Protestant  Missions — Americans — Voyage  to  Trebizond 
— Black  Sea — Trebizond — Antiquity — Capture  by  Goths — Fate  of 

the  City — Population  of  the  Modern  City — Ancient  Structures 

Commercial  Relations  of  the  City. 

There  are  several  routes  through  Europe  and  West¬ 
ern  Asia  to  Persia.  The  most  direct  and  available 
route  is  thought  to  be  from  Odessa  by  steamer  to 
Batoum,  near  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  Black 
Sea;  thence  by  railroad  to  Tiflis.  From  this  city 
there  is  a  good  post  road  to  the  river  Aras,  the  boun¬ 
dary  between  Russia  and  Persia.  From  this  river, 
the  journey  to  Tabriz  may  be  made  by  caravan  or  by 
post-horses.  There  are  no  post  wagons  in  Persia 
except  on  the  road  from  Casveen  to  Tehran. 

Travellers  for  Central  and  Eastern  Persia  who  do 


2  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [i. 

not  wish  to  follow  the  tedious  journey  of  near  four 
hundred  miles  from  Tabriz  to  Tehran,  should  pass 
by  the  railway  from  Tiflis  to  Baku.  The  latter  place 
is  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  has  a  commodious  harbour.  The  passage  from 
Baku  to  Anzile  may  be  made  by  the  mail  steamers  of 
the  Caucasus  and  Mercury  Line  in  from  twenty-four 
to  thirty-six  hours.  Anzile  is  the  chief  port  of  the 
Persian  coast.  There  is,  however,  no  harbour  here  for 
other  than  very  small  ships.  Large  boats  are  unable 
to  cross  the  bar  which  lies  over  the  outlet  of  the  bay 
called  Mord  Aub  ;  they  therefore  anchor  in  the  road¬ 
stead.  In  stormy  weather  the  landing  is  effected  with 
difficulty,  if  at  all,  in  small  flat-bottomed  row  boats. 

Freight  and  passengers  are  conveyed  in  these  boats 
from  Anzile  a.cross  the  Mord  Aub.  The  passage 
usually  takes  from  three  to  five  hours.  From  the 
Mord  Aub  there  is  a  row  up  a  small  creek  to  Pere 
Bazaar.  A  dilapidated  and  filthy  Custom  House  is 
the  only  building  in  the  place.  From  Pere  Bazaar  to 
the  city  of  Rasht,  there  is  a  fair  road  constructed 
through  the  jungle.  The  distance  is  about  six  miles. 
Rude  carts  or  horses  may  be  obtained  for  the  trans¬ 
portation  of  passengers  and  luggage  to  Rasht.  From 

% 

this  city  to  Casveen,  the  distance  is  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  miles,  and  the  journey  is -made  either 
by  caravan  or  by  post.  Wheeled  vehicles  cannot  be 
driven  over  the  passes  of  the  Elburz  mountains. 
Caravans  may  be  obtained  in  Rasht  for  Casveen.  At 


ROUTES  TO  PERSIA. 


3 


*•] 


the  latter  city,  post  wagons  may  be  hired  to  Tehran. 
The  distance  is  about  one  hundred  miles. 

The  route  from  Odessa  to  Anzile  is  not  in  all  re¬ 
spects  the  best.  That  by  way  of  Berlin,  Warsaw, 
Czaritzin  and  Astrakan,  is,  in  my  judgment,  better 
and  quicker.  At  Astrakan  passengers  and  baggage 
are  transferred  from  the  large  steamers  of  the  Volga 
to  barges  ;  these  are  towed  over  the  shallow  water  of 
the  delta  to  the  roadstead  called  Nine  Foot.  Here 
there  is  another  transfer  to  the  steamers  of  the  Cau¬ 
casus  and  Mercury  Line.  These  steamers  run  to  Baku, 
touching  at  Petrovsk  and  Derbend.  From  Baku, 
steamers  of  this  line  run  to  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  southward  to  near  Astrakan.  Other 
steamers  of  this  company  run  from  Baku  to  Anzile,  as 
above  stated. 

A  more  circuitous  route  than  either  of  the  two  routes 
described,  is  by  way  of  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  and 
Moscow  to  Nidjni  Novgorod,  and  thence  by  steamer 
down  the  Volga  River  to  Astrakan. 

A  railway  is  now  being  completed  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Caucasus  mountains  to  Petrovsk.  When 
finished  it  will  obviate  the  necessity  of  the  voyage  from 
Astrakan  to  Petrovsk,  and  will  enable  the  traveller  to 
Persia  to  avoid  the  Black  Sea. 

It  is  possible  to  go  from  Marseilles  by  steamer,  direct 
to  Batoum, 

The  voyage  from  London  to  Bushire,  via  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez  and  Persian  Gulf  is  made  in  from  four  to  six 


4 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[I. 

weeks’ time.  The  journey  from  Bushire  to  Tehran  by 
caravan  requires  thirty-five  to  forty  days,  and  should 
not  be  undertaken  in  the  late  spring  or  summer 
months. 

The  route  from  Damascus  to  Bagdad,  and  thence  to 
Tehran  may  appear  to  be  the  most  direct ;  but  it  is 
impracticable,  owing  to  the  desert,  the  Arabs,  and  the 
great  heat  to  be  met  with  in  the  route  west  of  Bagdad. 
This  city  is  distant  from  Tehran  about  eighteen  days’ 
journey  by  caravan.  The  only  seasons  of  the  year 
favourable  for  travel  in  Northern  Persia  are  the  autumn 
and  spring  months.  Of  the  two  seasons,  the  autumn 
is  the  more  favourable.  The  destination  of  myself  and 
party  was  Oroomiah,  in  Western  Persia.  We  sailed 
from  New  York  on  the  9th  of  August,  1871.  We  went 
via  Liverpool,  London,  Ostend,  Vienna,  Rustchuk  and 
Varna,  and  arrived  in  Constantinople  on  the  first  of  Sep¬ 
tember.  At  that  time  the  railway  from  Poti  to  Tiflis 
had  not  been  completed.  The  most  available  route 
therefore  for  us,  was  from  Trebizond  through  Eastern 
Turkey  and  Armenia. 

It  was  necessary  that  we  should  stop  at  Constan¬ 
tinople,  in  order  to  make  preparations  for  the  journey 
by  caravan  from  Trebizond.  Although  much  has  been 
written  about  Constantinople,  yet  some  account  of  the 
city  may  be  of  interest  to  the  reader  of  these  pages. 
The  chief  feature  of  the  situation  of  this  famous  city 
is  the  Bosphorus.  It  flows  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the 
sea  of  Marmora,  at  the  rate  of  about  three  miles  an 


CONSTANTINOPL  E. 


5 


*•] 


hour,  and  in  a  current  fifty  fathoms  deep.  The  hiils 
on  either  side  are  high,  and  are  covered  with  the  nu¬ 
merous  and  varied  structures  of  the  city.  Constanti¬ 
nople,  properly  so  called,  forms  a  small  part  of  that 
which  is  commonly  known  by  that  name. 

There  are  three  principal  divisions,  known  as  Pera, 
Galata  and  Istamboul.  The  two  first  were  suburbs'. 
The  last  named  represents  in  its  Turkish  form  the 
ancient  Constantinople.  Pera  occupies  a  hill,  and  the 
European  legations  and  foreign  residents  are,  for  the 
most  part,  in  it.  Galata  is  situated  on  a  peninsula 
between  the  Bosphorus  and  the  Golden  Horn.  It  con¬ 
sists  chiefly  of  bazaars  and  shops.  The  Golden  Horn 
is  the  name  of  an  arm  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  is  seven 
miles  long ;  it  appears  as  a  tributary  flowing  into  the 
larger  channel. 

Istamboul  is  the  Turkish  name  of  the  city  south  of 
the  Golden  Horn,  and  between  that  strait  and  the  Sea 
of  Marmora.  It  is  believed  that  this  name  is  a  cor¬ 
ruption  of  the  phrase  used  by  the  Greeks  of  the 
suburbs,  eis  teen  polin,  meaning  to  the  city.  It  came 
into  use  during  the  siege  of  the  city  by  the  Turks. 

On  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  opposite 
Galata,  is  the  suburb  Scutari,  occupying  the  heights 
once  commanded  by  Chrysopolis.  A  short  distance 
south  of  this  is  the  site  of  the  ancient  Chalcedon.  The 
quays  along  the  Bosphorus  in  front  of  Pera  extend  to 
Buyukdere,  a  distance  of  nine  miles. 

The  most  ancient  city  constructed  on  the  site  now 


6  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [i. 

occupied  by  Istamboul  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  ancient  mariner  Bazos  in  the  year  b.c.  656  or 
657.  From  its  founder  the  city  received  the  name 
Byzantium.  It  became  the  capital  of  a  kingdom, 
which  was  taken  by  the  Romans  a.  d.  73.  In  a  rebel¬ 
lion  against  Rome  it  sustained  a  siege  of  three  years’ 
continuance,  against  the  armies  of  the  Emperor  Sev- 
erus,  and  surrendered  only  to  famine  a.  d.  196.  In 
the  year  A.  d.  323,  Byzantium  was  taken  by  Con¬ 
stantine,  and  in  the  following  year  the  rebuilding  and 
enlargement  under  the  order  of  the  emperor  began. 
Six  or  ten  years  later  the  work  was  completed,  and 
the  city  was  dedicated  under  the  name  New  Rome ; 
but  the  name  City  of  Constantine  given  by  the  popu¬ 
lace,  either  in  praise  or  derision,  as  denoting  the  par¬ 
tiality  of  the  emperor,  survived  the  name  formally 
bestowed.  At  the  first,  five  of  the  seven  hills  of  the 
peninsula  were  inclosed,  the  sixth  and  seventh  were 
included  later.  The  extreme  length  of  the  city  was 
about  three  Roman  miles,  and  the  circumference  nearly 
eleven  miles. 

The  chief  structures  in  the  days  of  Constantine 
were  the  Forum,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  a  lofty 
column  of  ten  pieces  of  porphyry  on  a  base  of  marble, 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high  and  thirty- 
three  feet  in  circumference,  and  surmounted  by  the 
statue  of  Apollo ;  the  Circus  or  Hippodrome,  four  hun¬ 
dred  paces  in  length,  and  one  hundred  paces  in  breadth. 
Between  the  Hippodrome  and  the  church  of  St.  So- 


CHURCH  OF  ST.  SOPHIA. 


7 


*•] 

phia  was  the  splendid  palace  of  the  emperor.  To 
these  structures  may  be  added  baths,  schools,  palaces 
and  churches.  It  is  said  that  nearly  every  heathen 
temple  in  Asia  was  despoiled  of  its  richest  ornaments 
to  embellish  some  structure  in  New  Rome. 

The  church  of  St.  Sophia,  or  Eternal  Wisdom, 
constructed  under  the  order  of  Constantine,  was  twice 
burned.  It  was  rebuilt  by  the  emperor  Justinian. 
The  foundations  of  the  new  and  present  edifice  were 
laid  A. d.  532.  The  structure  was  completed  in  five 
years,  eleven  months,  and  ten  days,  and  cost  the 
equivalent  of  at  least  one  million  pounds  sterling,  a 
sum  which  in  those  times  would  represent  a  greater 
value  than  now. 

Constantinople  became  the  capital  of  the  Eastern 

Empire  on  the  division  of  the  Roman  dominions  a.  d. 

* 

364,  and  it  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  government  of 
Greeks  or  Latins,  until  taken  by  the  Turks  under 
Mohammed  II.  on  the  second  day  of  May,  a.  d.  1453, 
since  which  time  it  has  remained  a  possession  of  the 
Turks,  and  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

As  I  wanted  to  see  as  much  of  the  city  as  was  pos¬ 
sible  for  me  to  see  in  a  short  time,  I  hired  a  horse  and 
a  guide.  The  horse  had  frequently  been  ridden  in 
explorations  of  this  sort.  The  guide  turned  out  to 
be  the  man  who  served  Mark  Twain  in  a  like 
capacity,  and  whose  features  have  been  exhibited  to 
the  public  in  a  wood  cut  which  graces  the  pages  of 


8 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[I- 


that  writer’s  journal.  I  had  taken  but  a  few  steps 
when  my  guide  in  broken  English  informed  me  that 
I  must  know  him,  because  his  name  and  picture  were 
in  Mark  “Thwain’s  ”  book. 

By  giving  a  few  francs  I  was  permitted  to  wear 
boots  in  going  through  the  Mosque  into  which  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia  has  been  converted.  I  noticed 
on  one  of  the  splendid  columns  of  this  structure  the 
impression  of  an  enormous  foot.  On  inquiring  of  a 
mullah  in  attendance,  he  said  that  it  is  the  impression 
of  the  devil’s  foot  which  he  made  in  his  flight  from 
Mohammed.  In  taking  a  long  stride  one  foot  struck 
the  solid  porphyry  column  and  sank  deep  enough  in 
the  stone  to  leave  this  abiding  mark. 

I  saw  the  dervishes  prostrate  themselves  in  the  way 
from  the  gate  to  the  palace,  and  the  Sultan  ride  over 
their  prostrate  bodies.  I  saw  also  the  walls  on  the 
west  of  Istamboul,  the  Hippodrome,  the  palaces  of 
the  Sultan,  and  the  Sultan  as  he  passed  in  his  caique 
down  the  Bosphorus  to  the  mosque  of  St.  Sophia, 
and  I  obtained  the  customary  view  of  the  city  from 
the  top  of  the  tall  minar. 

In  1871,  the  population  of  the  city  now  called  Con¬ 
stantinople  was  nine  hundred  and  sixty  thousand. 

The  Bosphorus  and  Golden  Horn  are  filled  with 
shipping,  conspicuous  in  which  are  ironclads  and  ships 
of  war.  The  caique  is  a  craft  peculiar  to  this  region. 
It  originated  with  the  Genoese.  It  is  light  and  frail, 
and  next^o  the  dug-out  of  a  North  American  Indian, 


I.]  MISSION  WORK  IN  CONSTANTINOPLE. 


9 


is  the  most  unreliable  and  uncomfortable  craft  that  I 
ever  got  into. 

There  are  many  Europeans  in  Constantinople.  The 
Americans  resident  here  are  for  the  most  part  en¬ 
gaged  in  some  form  of  missionary  work.  Protestant 
missions  have  been  established  many  years  in  this 
city,  but  the  results  are  by  no  means  satisfactory  to 
the  parties  carrying  on  the  work.  They  have  en¬ 
countered  here  a  concentration  of  all  the  obstacles 
which  arise  from  Mohammedanism  on  the  one  hand, 
and  a  corrupt  church  and  European  profligacy  on 
the  other.  Therefore,  evangelistic  effort  has  been 
made  more  in  the  line  of  Christian  literature  and  edu¬ 
cation,  than  of  direct  missionary  work,  though  this,  it 
should  be  said,  is  of  such  a  nature  in  every  place,  that 
its  results  are  not  so  readily  seen  as  are  the  fruits  of 
efforts  directed  to  other  lines  of  work. 

American  missionary  effort  is  permanently  repre¬ 
sented  by  Roberts  College  and  the  American  Bible 
House.  The  former  is  a  conspicuous  object  a  few 
miles  from  the  city  and  west  of  the  Bosphorus. 
The  preparation  of  a  Christian  literature  in  the  lan¬ 
guages  spoken  in  Turkey,  has  engaged  very  largely 
the  attention  of  the  American  missionaries.  The  re¬ 
sult  has  been  a  goodly  number  of  translations  in  the 
Bulgarian,  Armenian  and  Turkish  languages.  The 
Bible  and  book  agency  established  here  has  been  for 
a  long  time  the  source  of  supply  for  European  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  for  Persia. 


IO 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[I- 


On  the  night  of  the  9th  of  September  we  went 
aboard  a  small  Turkish  steamer  bound  for  Trebizond, 
and  which,  soon  after  our  arrival  on  board,  steamed 
out  of  the  Bosphorus.  The  Black  Sea  appears  to 
have  retained  very  much  of  the  reputation  acquired 
by  it  in  ancient  times.  A  writer  states,  that  “  of  one 
thousand  Turkish  vessels  which  skim  over  its  waters 
every  year,  five  hundred  are  said  to  be  wrecked  as 
a  matter  of  course.”  So  large  a  proportion  of  loss 
indicates  either  a  very  formidable  sea,  or  very  poor 
seamanship.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
statement  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  facts.  Our  steamer 
sailed  near  the  southern  coast  so  that  by  day  we 
were  able  to  see  much  of  the  Anatolian  shore.  The 
black  mountains,  dark  waters,  and  cloudy  sky,  gave 
a  dreary  prospect.  There  was  but  little  in  sky  or 
land  to  impart  pleasure,  except  it  were  that  of  identi¬ 
fying  in  the  land  a  place  of  ancient  fame.  We  could 
imagine  our  course  to  be  that  of  the  Argonauts,  those 
daring  sailors  who  made  the  first  known  voyage  over 
these  waters  so  long  ago  as  twelve  hundred  years  be¬ 
fore  the  birth  of  Christ. 

If  this  sea  retains  somewhat  of  the  terror  with  which 
it  was  invested  by  the  imagination  of  the  ancients, 
some  three  thousand  years  ago,  we  know  that  no  such 
dread  filled  the  minds  of  the  Goths  who  lived  on  its 
shores ;  for  these  adventurers  sallied  from  the  Cim¬ 
merian  Bosphorus  on  their  expeditions  for  war  and 
plunder,  in  flat  bottomed  boats  covered  with  wood  or 


I.] 


TREB1Z0ND. 


II 


hides  in  the  form  of  the  roofs  of  our  houses,  and 
without  sail  or  oar,  trusting  to  wind  and  wave  to 
bear  them  to  the  opposite  shore.  On  the  morning 
of  the  1 2th  we  awoke  to  find  our  steamer  at  anchor 
in  the  roadstead  of  Trebizond.  The  Romans  con¬ 
structed  a  harbour  here,  where  the  galleys  were 
safely  moored;  but  the  work  has  disappeared,  and 
ships  are  now  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  sea.  From  the 
deck  of  our  ship  we  had  a  good  view  of  the  coast  and 
mountains  beyond. 

The  city  takes  its  name  from  the  level  strip  of  land 
between  the  sea  and  the  mountains,  which  the  Greeks 
described  by  the  word  trapezium,  as  we  now  do  by  the 
word  table  land,  whence  came  the  name  Trebizond. 
The  record  of  this  city  is  a  remarkable  one.  It  first 
became  known  to  history  in  the  writings  of  Xeno¬ 
phon  about  four  hundred  years  before  Christ.  He 
relates  that  it  was  at  that  time  “  a  Greek  city  of  large 
population,  a  colony  of  Sinope,  but  lying  in  the  terri¬ 
tory  of  the  Colchians.”  The  founding  of  the  city  must 
have  taken  place  a  long  time  before  the  expedition  of 
the  Ten  Thousand.  Very  little  is  recorded  of  the  place 
or  known  of  it  subsequent  to  this  note  of  Xenophon, 
during  a  period  of  seven  hundred  years.  In  the  third 
century  a.  d.,  it  fell  a  rich  prize  to  the  Goths.  The 
officers  of  the  army  and  the  people  of  the  city,  feel¬ 
ing  secure  in  the  intrenchments  and  defences,  were 
occupied  with  feasting  and  revelry  in  the  night, 
when  the  Goths,  filling  the  trenches,  scaled  the  walls 


12 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[i- 


and  took  possession  of  the  treasures  and  refugees 
gathered  here. 

Trebizond  was  a  possession  of  the  Eastern  Empire, 
until,  on  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins, 
Alexis,  a  pretender  to  the  Byzantine  throne,  established 
his  court  here.  The  Comnenian  princes  ruled  from  that 
period  a.  d.  i  204,  until  the  capture  of  the  city  and  the 
extinction  of  that  dynasty  by  Mohammed  the  second, 
A.  d.  1461 ;  since  which  time  it  has  belonged  to  the  Turk¬ 
ish  dominions.  The  foreign  residents  of  Trebizond  were 
two  or  three  consuls  an<3  a  few  merchants.  The  Ameri¬ 
cans  have  been  represented  here  by  missionaries  of  the 
American  Board  only.  None  of  these  were  now  per¬ 
manent  residents  in  the  place.  Missionary  operations 
were  begun  in  1834-5,  by  Messrs.  Johnson,  Jackson  and 
Bliss.  In  1871  there  were  twelve  native  families  identi¬ 
fied  with  the  Protestant  mission ;  the  only  one  in  the 
city  and  in  charge  of  the  missionaries  resident  in  Erze- 
roum.  Among  the  interesting  objects  of  the  town  are 
many  ruined  structures  of  Byzantine  architecture;  Greek 
churches  ;  the  tomb  of  Solomon,  King  of  Georgia ;  old 
walls  of  the  Byzantine  citadel ;  tombs  of  Mohammed¬ 
ans  and  Christians,  and  the  church  of  St.  Sophia. 

Trebizond  is  the  chief  port  of  the  Black  Sea  for 
Eastern  Turkey,  and  until  the  opening  of  the  railroad 
from  Poti  to  Tiflis,  it  was  the  principal  port  whence 
goods  were  conveyed  to  Persia.  The  bazaars  are 
ruined  and  filthy ;  the  streets  are  narrow  and  filled 
with  rubbish.  The  city  has  a  population  of  fifty  or 


POPULATION  OF  TREBIZOND . 


13 


*•] 


sixty  thousand  souls,  comprising  three  thousand 
houses  of  Armenians,  five  hundred  Georgian  families ; 
Papal  Armenians,  one  hundred  and  twenty  houses  ; 
twelve  Protestant,  and  eighteen  thousand  Moham¬ 
medan  houses. 


CHAPTER  II. 


Coast  of  the  Black  Sea — Roads  and  Distances — Customs  of  Travel — 
Cajavahs — Taktravan — Chavidars — Manner  of  Loading  a  Caravan — 
Road  to  Gumish  Khanah — First  Manzil — Tent  Life — A  Night  En¬ 
campment — Bulut  Dah  or  Village  of  the  Clouds — Mountain  Pass — 
Gumish  Khanah — Beyburt — The  Euphrates  Valley,  or  Kara  Su — 
Illijah — Erzeroum — Antiquities — The  Plain — Climate — Present  Con¬ 
dition  of  the  City — Armenian  Establishment — American  Mission¬ 
aries — Hassan  Kalah — Boundary  of  Armenia  and  Kurdistan — 
Eastern  Branch  of  the  Euphrates — Hoshean — Ararat — Paskek — 
Kara  Kallesia  the  Black  Church — Troglodytes — Utch  Kallesia — 
The  Stage  to  Kizil  Diza — Yezdees — Principal  Tenets — Rites — 
Boundary  between  Turkey  and  Persia — The  Land  of  the  Shah — 
Descent  to  the  Plain  of  Khoy — Pa  Baba — Pass  to  the  Plain  of 
Salmas — Plain  of  Salmas — Missions  of  the  Plain — Pass  to  Gavalan 
— The  Plain  of  Oroomiah  Sea  or  Lake — The  Shahe  Sea — The  Shores 
of  the  Sea — Gavalan — Mission  Premises  and  Early  Enterprise — Ride 
to  Oroomiah — Approach  to  the  City — Death  of  Mr.  Cochran. 

The  southern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  is  a  range  of 
lofty  mountains.  The  mountains,  which  are  within 
one  hundred  miles  of  the  sea,  are  more  precipitous 
than  those  of  the  interior  country.  The  most  difficult 
passes  between  Trebizond  and  Persia  are  in  the  coast 
ranges.  At  this  time  the  military  road  from  the  sea  to 
Erzeroum  had  been  completed;  but  it  had  been  washed 
away,  in  many  places,  by  mountain  torrents.  We  could 
not  trust  to  conveyance  by  wagon  in  the  uncertain 
*4 


II.] 


CUSTOMS  OF  TRAVEL. 


*5 


state  of  the  road,  and  therefore  engaged  a  Persian  cara¬ 
van  of  horses  to  transport  ourselves  and  baggage  to 
Oroomiah,  a  distance  of  five  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
by  way  of  the  Khoy  plain.  The  new  road  obviated 
the  necessity*  of  our  having  the  experience  of  the 
travellers  who  in  former  years  crossed  these  mountains 
by  the  old  route.  Instead  of  the  narrow  path  along 
ledges  of  rock  projecting  from  the  precipitous  sides 

of  deep  chasms,  we  followed  a  well-graded  and  broad 
pike. 

Our  arrangements  for  the  land  journey  were  com¬ 
pleted  in  Trebizond.  I  here  took  my  first  lessons  in 
true  Oriental  ways,  and  in  the  requirements  and  dia¬ 
lect  of  travel  by  caravan.  I  learned  that  sahib  means 
Mr.  or  master,  and  is  invariably  used  by  natives  of 
this  country  in  addressing  Europeans,  who  are  also 
called  Frangees ;  the  Frank  or  Frenchman  having 
been  taken  at  first  as  the  representative  of  all  Euro¬ 
peans.  The  term  has  come  down  from  the  time  of 
the  Crusades.  A  chavidar,  I  was  told,  is  a  man  who 
drives  horses,  and  a  katirchee  is  one  who  drives  mules. 
I  learned  also  that  any  place  in  which  we  might  lodge 
for  the  night  is  called  a  manzil,  and  the  station-house 
is  named  a  khanah. 

The  caj avahs  and  taktravan  are  substitutes  for 
wheeled  vehicles,  to  be  used  when  there  are  no  wacron 
roads,  and  no  wagons.  The  former  name  is  given  to 
two  light  frames  with  box  bottom,  which  are  sus¬ 
pended  one  on  either  side  of  a  horse  or  other  beast 


l6 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


of  burden.  The  cajavah  is  more  available  than  the 
taktravan,  and  safer  in  most  places.  The  sides  have 
to  be  equally  balanced.  So  if  the  occupant  of  one 
side  is  of  less  weight  than  the  person  in  the  other 
side,  the  difference  is  adjusted  by  the  addition  of  a 
stone  or  some  part  of  the  luggage.  The  top  is  pro¬ 
vided  with  hoops  over  which  canvas  is  fastened,  thus 
affording  a  protection  from  sunlight  and  rain. 

The  taktravan  may  be  described  as  a  long  box  set 
in  the  centre  of  two  parallel  poles.  The  ends  of  these 
poles,  which  project  beyond  the  ends  of  the  box,  serve 
as  shafts.  In  them  a  horse  is  hitched ;  the  head  of 
the  rear  horse  being  tied  to  the  box.  These  convey¬ 
ances  are  usually  made  of  wood,  and  of  water-tight 
top  and  sides.  They  are  often  constructed  at  consid¬ 
erable  expense ;  and  by  upholstering  the  interior  may 
be  made  very  warm ;  they  are  provided  with  doors 
and  windows.  This  vehicle  is  suspended  by  rings  to 
hooks  attached  to  the  pack-saddles. 

Our  chavidars  had  agreed  to  start  on  the  morning 
of  the  14th,  but  at  that  time  they  struck  for  higher 
wages,  and  the  day  was  lost  in  negotiations.  When 
the  terms  had  been  readjusted,  the  men  came  with 
ropes  to  prepare  the  loads.  They  carefully  lifted 
every  box  to  ascertain  the  weight  of  each ;  these 
having  been  mated  according  to  weight,  they  were 
wound  about  with  ropes  in  a  way  best  known  to 
chavidars.  If  any  of  the  loads  weighed  more  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  it  was  said  to  be  too 


II.] 


MANNER  OF  LOADING  A  CARAVAN 


17 


heavy  and  must  be  repacked,  or  extra  freight  must  be 
paid.  At  midnight  we  were  awakened  by  these  men 
and  informed  that  they  were  ready  to  start  They 
were  told  to  get  their  horses  ready.  It  was  broad 
day,  however,  before  they  began  to  put  the  loads  upon 
the  horses.  They  now  began  to  quarrel  with  one 
another  as  to  who  should  have  the  lightest  loads. 
There  was  a  battle  of  words.  The  controversy  seemed 
to  be  settled  by  the  man  of  the  most  assurance,  and 
most  fluent  tongue. 

The  horses  were  now  led  out.  These  were  called 
yaboos,  a  very  significant  term,  denoting  an  inferior 
animal,  and  equivalent  to  the  English  word  plug. 
The  blooded  and  best  horses*  are  called  by  Persians 
asp,  and  the  former  name  is  never  used  of  the  best 
animals.  On  the  neck  of  every  horse  was  a  belt  of 
beads,  bells,  and  tassels.  Every  belt  had  no  less  than 
three  bells.  There  were  forty  horses  in  the  caravan, 
and  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  cow  bells. 
The  bells  are  much  prized  by  the  natives,  and  are 
useful  to  the  chavidar,  as  they  enable  him  to  know 
when  any  one  of  the  horses  leaves  the  caravan  by  the 
way,  and  in  the  night.  The  bells  put  upon  camels 
are- very  large,  and  their  sound  may  be  heard  a  long 
distance.  Sometimes  names  and  mottoes  are  engraved 
on  the  bells. 

Every  one  of  the  horses  carried  a  pack-saddle 

1  The  legal  load  is  forty  botmans,  or  about  two  hundred  and  seventy 
pounds. 


i8 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


shaped  like  a  peaked  roof.  It  is  made  of  coarse  can¬ 
vas  cloth  or  felt,  and  is  stuffed  with  straw.  A  horse 
was  led  to  each  load.  The  mated  boxes  were  lifted 
by  three  or  four  men,  over  the  hips  of  the  horse,  and 
suspended  by  the  ropes  connecting  them  over  the 
saddle.  The  ropes  were  then  wound  over  the  boxes 
and  beneath  the  horse  and  made  tight.  The  horses 
being  once  loaded,  travel  continuously,  and  there  is 
no  voluntary  halt  until  the  stage  of  the  day  has  been 
completed.  The  process  of  unloading  is  short  and 
easy ;  the  noose  in  the  ropes  serves  as  a  pulley,  and 
the  boxes  are  lowered  or  dumped,  as  the  temper  of 
the  chavidar  may  be. 

The  taktravan  was  taken  up  by  four  men,  one  being 
at  the  end  of  each  pole ;  the  rings  on  the  poles  were 
then  slipped  over  the  hooks  of  the  harness  on  the  pack 
saddle  of  both  forward  and  rear  horse.  As  the  lady 
who  rode  in  this  conveyance  entered  the  door,  the 
taktravan  rocked  like  a  ship  at  sea.  The  covered 
baskets  in  place  of  cajavahs  were  swung  over  the  saddle 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  boxes,  and  in  each  basket 
was  placed  a  child.  A  native  Persian  seated  between 
the  baskets  drove  and  guided  the  horse.  The  other 
members  of  our  party  now  mounted  the  saddle 
horses;  the  pack  animals  now  fell  in  line  one  after 
another,  followed  by  chavidars  on  foot.  A  native 
walked  by  the  side  of  the  taktravan  to  keep  it  steady, 
and  the  whole  caravan  moved  off  with  a  deafening  and 
discordant  jingle  of  bells,  and  shouts  of  the  chavidars. 


I 


II.] 


A  TURKISH  KHANAH. 


19 


We  took  the  road  to  Gumish  Khanah,  or  house  of 
silver.  The  road  followed  the  tortuous  valley  of  a 
small  river.  Before  us  there  appeared  a  broad  pano¬ 
rama  of  mountain  peaks  and  gorges.  The  former 
seemed  to  rise  higher  as  we  ascended.  A  turn  in  the 
way  often  enabled  us  to  see  our  road  many  miles  be¬ 
yond,  and  many  hundred  feet  above  us,  as  a  thread 
and  coil  on  the  mountain  side. 

Near  sunset  we  halted  at  the  inn  called  Jarvislik. 
Here  we  had  our  first  sight  of  a  Turkish  khanah. 
This  building  was  two  stories  high ;  the  ceilings  were 
low.  The  lower  story  was  used  as  a  stable.  The 
upper  part  was  divided  into  two  or  three  small  rooms. 
The  floors  were  of  earth ;  the  ceiling  consisted  of 
round  timbers  overlaid  with  reeds.  The  walls  were 
covered  with  a  coarse  brown  plaster  of  mud.  A  hole 
in  the  wall  served  as  a  window,  through  which  just 
enough  light  entered  the  room  to  reveal  the  situation, 
and  to  deepen  the  sense  of  dreariness.  The  khanah 
belongs  to  the  government.  An  old  Turk  serves  as 
keeper,  and  receives  a  small  present  from  the  travellers 
who  may  lodge  in  the  inn.  But  he  provides  neither  bed 
nor  food.  This  khanah  seemed  to  be  a  very  dreary 
place,  but  it  was  found  to  be  first  class  in  comparison 
with  inns  which  are  to  be  seen  further  on  in  the  jour¬ 
ney.  In  the  regions  where  timber  is  abundant  the  dwell¬ 
ings  are  largely  of  wood  and  stone.  In  the  interior 
they  are  for  the  most  part  underground.  In  the  latter 
case  the  presence  of  a  village  is  apparent  from  stacks 


20 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


Pr¬ 


of  pahin  or  tezek/  which  are  the  first  objects  seen,  as 
minarets  and  church  spires  are  in  other  countries. 

Our  party  preferred  tents  to  the  khanah.  The  tents, 
therefore,  were  set  up  far  enough  away  from  the  inn 
and  village  to  insure  quiet  and  freedom  from  annoy¬ 
ance.  Now  began  the  new  experience  of  tent  life. 
Mats  were  put  down,  bedsteads  set  up,  bedding  un¬ 
packed,  dishes  and  provisions  were  brought  in,  and 
house-keeping  begun  in  the  certain  knowledge  that 
this  process  of  unpacking  must  be  repeated  every 
night  during  the  continuance  of  the  journey.  The 
darkness  of  a  cloudy  night  made  denser  by  the 
shadow  of  high  mountains  gathered  about  us  in  the 
hush  and  silence  of  a  mountain  glen.  But  the  quiet 
was  soon  broken.  Suddenly  the  cries  of  men  in  dis¬ 
tress  came  from  the  village.  The  speech  was  an  un¬ 
known  tongue,  but  the  tones  were  those  of  fear,  anger 
and  pain.  I  knew  that  the  cook  had  some  knowledge 
of  English,  and  of  the  Persian  Turkish.  Calling  him, 
therefore,  he  said:  “Chavidars  very  bad  mens;  I  think 
the  mens  of  the  caravansary  drives  them  away.”  So  he 
interpreted.  One  man  shouted,  “  Don’t  kill  me !  ” 
Another  cried,  “  You  have  killed  him.”  Then  followed 
thuds,  and  an  interval  of  silence,  to  be  succeeded  by 
yells.  A  brief  council  was  held,  and  a  messenger  sent 
to  command  peace  and  to  report.  I  did  not  wait  for 
the  return  of  the  messenger  before  going  to  sleep. 

The  morning  revealed  the  fact  that  the  disturbance 

1  A  preparation  of  fuel  from  the  deposit  of  the  stables. 


I 


IL] 


VILLA  GE  OF  GUM I.S H  KHANAH. 


21 


of  the  night  arose  from  the  attempt  of  the  chavidars 
to  settle  the  questions  of  their  partnership.  The  rain 
fell  in  torrents  during  the  night  and  morning.  At 
dawn  we  packed  up  beds,  bedding,  bedsteads,  dishes 
and  provisions,  and  struck  tent  in  the  thickest  of 
the  storm.  We  began  the  second  day’s  stage  quite 
initiated  in  the  ways  of  chavidars  and  the  realities  of 
Oiientai  life  in  its  most  common,  practical  form.  So 
night  and  morning  for  more  than  thirty  days,  in  pack¬ 
ing  and  unpacking,  and  weary  plodding  over  a  stage  of 
fifteen  to  twenty  miles,  we  repeated  the  experiences  of 
the  first  day,  and  I  need  not  repeat  them  in  these  pages. 
Near  nightfall  of  the  second  day  we  reached  the  inn 
Bulut  Dah,  or  village  of  the  clouds.  The  altitude, 
however,  was  no  more  than  three  thousand  six  hun¬ 
dred  feet  above  the  sea.  The  pertinency  of  the  name 
arises  more  from  the  concentration  of  clouds  here  than 
from  the  height  of  the  situation. 

Leaving  this  halting  place  of  the  clouds  on  Monday, 
the  ascent  soon  became  difficult.  At  8.25  a.  m.,  we 
gained  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  two  hundred  feet, 
and  a  temperature  of  590  Fahrenheit.  We  crossed  the 
summit  of  the  pass  at  1 1  o’clock  A.  m.,  and  at  an  eleva¬ 
tion  of  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  At  this  point 
the  thermometer  registered  6o°  in  the  sun.  This  was 
the  highest  point  in  the  pass  of  the  first  range  of 
mountains. 

On  the  evening  of  the  19th,  we  set  up  our  tents 
near  the  village  of  Gumish  Khanah.  It  is  so  named 


22 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


on  account  of  the  silver  mines  in  the  vicinity.  The 
town  contains  four  or  five  thousand  people,  and  owes 
its  importance  to  the  mines  of  silver.  These  were  once 
thought  worthy  of  a  controversy  between  the  Roman 
emperor  and  Khosroes,  King  of  Persia.  The  yield 
of  silver  ore  is  now  less  than  it  was  in  former  times. 
Passing  several  stages  and  unimportant  villages,  we 
came  to  Beyburt  on  the  ninth  day  of  travel  from 
Trebizond.  This  town  is  reported  to  contain  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  thousand  people.  It  is  situated 
in  a  valley  of  a  tributary  of  the  Tcho  Ra  River.  It 
was  now  Friday,  the  Sabbath  of  Mohammedans.  The 
markets,  however,  were  open  as  they  usually  are,  during 
some  part  of  the  day.  The  people  of  the  large  cities 
do  not  usually  work  on  Friday.  The  only  religious 
service  is  in  the  morning  at  the  mosque.  After  this 
the  time  is  spent  in  recreation. 

The  large  cities  of  these  regions  contain  many  fairly 
constructed  houses.  The  villages  are  composed  of 
hovels.  The  people  of  the  former  have  a  better  ap¬ 
pearance  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  and 
villages.  The  costume  of  these  Turks  differs  in  a 
few  particulars  only  from  the  dress  of  Persians.  The 
red  fez  is  rarely  worn  in  the  rural  districts.  The  ordi¬ 
nary  costume  is  a  high  sheep  skin  hat  without  brim  ; 
a  loose  gown  reaching  to  the  ankles,  and  sandals  or 
loose  shoes.  The  dress  of  the  women  is  essentially 
the  same  as  that  of  Persian  Mohammedans. 

On  the  23d,  we  crossed  the  highest  pass  between 


n.] 


ERZEROUM. 


2  3 


Trebizond  and  Erzeroum ;  the  altitude  is  seven  thou¬ 
sand  six  hundred  feet.  At  this  elevation,  in  the  sun, 
the  thermometer  registered  85  °  F.  The  adjacent  peaks 
attained  to  a  height  of  some  fifteen  hundred  feet  more. 
On  the  south,  there  was  an  extended  view  of  the. val¬ 
ley  of  the  Kara  Su,  a  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  and 
to  the  eastward  in  dim  outline,  the  city  of  Erzeroum, 
distant  some  two  to  three  days’  journey  by  caravan. 
Our  manzil  for  the  night  was  within  nine  hours  of 
Illijah.  This  place  we  reached  in  one  day  and  a  half. 
It  is  situated  on  the  plain  of  Erzeroum,  and  is  now 
famous  for  its  hot  springs.  It  is  noted  in  history  for 
the  great  battle  fought  in  this  vicinity  by  the  armies 
of  Pompey  and  of  Mithri dates,  in  which  the  latter  was 
defeated.  We  entered  the  city  on  the  26th.  Erzeroum 
is  said  by  some  writers  to  occupy  the  site  of  Theodosi- 
opolis,  which  was  built  A.  d.  415.  But  the  true  position 
of  that  city  is  believed  to  have  been  some  thirty  miles 
east  of  this  place.  The  name  Erzeroum  is  derived  from 
the  terms  Arz,  meaning  a  line  or  boundary,  and  Roum, 
the  name  of  Rome.  It  denoted  the  country  of  Rome. 
A  late  writer  says  that  the  name  first  figures  in  the  triple 
division  of  the  Suljuks.  It  should  be  said,  however, 
that  the  name  occurs  in  history  before  the  time  of  the 
Suljuks.  There  was  an  Arzrumes  in  the  south,  and  an 
Erzeroum  in  Mesopotamian  Armenia. 

A  Persian  historian  relates  that  the  country  of 
Roum  comprehended  about  sixty  cities,  and  lay  be¬ 
tween  Armenia,  Georgia,  Syria,  and  the  sea  of  Roum. 


24 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


In  the  reign  of  the  Suljuks  the  revenue  of  the  district 
was  ninety-seven  thousand  five  hundred  tomans. 

The  antiquities  of  this  city  are  fragments  of  the  old 
walls,  baths,  and  the  gateway  of  two  minarets,  called 
Thufta  Minar.  The  old  wall  was  now  being  removed 
to  make  room  for  new  buildings.  Some  of  the  mosques 
are  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  in  the  twelfth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  altitude  of  the  plain 
where  the  city  stands  is  about  six  thousand  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  latitude  of  the  place  is  near 
the  40th  parallel.  The  temperature  of  the  winters  may 
therefore  be  conjectured.  The  heat  of  summer  is  in¬ 
tense. 

Erzeroum  is  the  capital  of  the  Pashalik,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  sixty  thousand  souls,  Turks  and 
Armenians.  The  city  has  often  suffered  from  earth¬ 
quakes.  Some  of  the  houses  are,  therefore,  constructed 
with  a  view  to  resist  the  shocks.  A  bishop  of  the 
Armenian  Church  resides  in  Erzeroum.  The  schools 
are  the  principal  features  of  his  establishment.  The 
nunnery  furnished  a  school  for  Armenian  girls.  The 
school  for  boys  was  divided  into  three  departments. 
The  principal  studies  of  the  highest  department  were 
rhetoric,  mathematics,  and  the  French  language.  A 
new  building  had  been  constructed  for  the  nunnery. 
The  girls  attending  were  mostly  day  scholars,  and  few 
or  none  appeared  to  be  above  fifteen  years  of  age. 

The  only  Americans  in  this  city  are  missionaries  of 
the  American  Board.  The  mission  was  begun  here  in 


IT.] 


HASSAN  KALAH. 


25 


1840  by  Mr.  Jackson.  In  the  early  years  of  this  effort, 
much  opposition  was  excited  by  the  Armenian  bishop. 
Imprisonment,  fines  and  flogging  were  the  penalty  for 
professing  or  inclining  to  Protestantism.  After  thirty 
years  the  visible  results  of  the  mission  are  a  church 
and  two  schools  in  the  city,  and  several  congregations 
and  schools  in  the  country.  Messrs.  Parmelee,  Cole 
and  Pierce,  with  their  wives,  and  Miss  Van  Duzee, 
were  now  in  charge  of  this  work,  and  had  for  the  field 
of  their  mission  the  people  of  Northeastern  Turkey, 
and  a  territory  extending  to  Georgia  and  the  border 
of  Persia. 

On  the  29th  of  September  we  resumed  the  journey 
eastward,  having  been,  according  to  Eastern  custom, 
“  poured  out  on  the  way  ”  by  the  kind  friends  of  Erze- 
roum.  The  caravan  of  loads  had  preceded  us,  but  we 
reserved  the  tents  in  case  of  need.  The  chavidars  did 
not  halt  at  the  village  where  it  was  intended  we  should 
make  our  manzil.  We  therefore  hastened  forward, 
but  night  coming  on,  we  pitched  our  tents  by  the  road¬ 
side,  a  long  distance  from  any  village.  In  the  morn¬ 
ing  at  7.30,  the  thermometer  registered  40°  F.  We 
passed  the  plain  of  Hassan  Kalah.  The  old  citadel 
and  wall  of  the  town  of  that  name  are  conspicuous 
objects.  There  are  here  hot  springs  and  baths,  and 
near  by  a  branch  of  the  Aras  River.  We  set  up  our 
tents  for  the  night  in  the  village  of  Bulekok.  On 
the  2d  of  October,  at  six  o’clock  in  the  morning,  the 
temperature  was  390  F.,  and  ice  had  formed  during 


26 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


the  night.  At  Bikoyah,  the  next  manzil,  the  report 
was  circulated  that  a  caravan  of  Persian  merchants  had 
been  robbed  on  the  previous  day  near  the  next  station, 
and  the  merchants  while  defending  their  property  had 
been  killed.  Robbery  is  frequent  on  all  this  route, 
and  especially  in  the  regions  east  of  Erzeroum.  It  is 
commonly  believed  that  life  will  not  be  taken  by  the 
banditti  if  no  resistance  is  offered.  Every  traveller  is 
here  suspicious  of  armed  men  and  horsemen.  The 
mails  are  often  robbed,  both  here  and  in  Persia.  Sev¬ 
eral  years  subsequent  to  this  time,  I  received  a  letter 
which  had  been  picked  up  where  the  letters  had  been 
thrown  down  by  the  robbers.  A  gentleman  of  my 
acquaintance  who  had  sent  by  mail  a  valuable  gold 
watch  to  Constantinople  for  repair  was  not  so  fortunate. 

A  caravan  is  usually  attacked,  if  at  all,  in  the  night, 
or  in  the  early  hours  of  morning,  when  the  men  are 
overcome  with  sleep.  A  dash  is  made  by  the  thieves, 
and  one  or  more  loads  turned  off  the  way.  The  entire 
caravan  would  be  more  than  most  banditti  could  dis¬ 
pose  of,  as  they  go  about  in  small  companies.  They 
are  content,  in  most  cases,  to  get  off  with  two  or  three 
loads  of  merchandise.  Yet  the  Baktearee  and  the 
Kurds  have  been  known  to  capture  whole  caravans. 
If  it  is  known  or  thought  that  persons  in  a  caravan 
have  large  sums  of  money  they  are  most  likely  to  be 
attacked.  At  all  times  the  laggards  run  great  risk  of 
being  killed  or  robbed. 

During  this  night,  and  for  the  first  time,  we  had  a 


IL] 


ARMENIA  AND  KURDISTAN. 


27 


guard.  The  village  near  which  a  caravan  rests  is 
held  responsible  for  any  loss  by  thieving  which  the 
caravan  may  suffer.  When  any  danger  is  appre¬ 
hended,  it  is  customary  to  require  a  patrol  of  the 
kathoda  of  the  village.  The  people  of  the  village  are 
very  ready,  to  serve  for  a  few  piasters.  It  is  the  cus¬ 
tom,  that  these  men  who  act  as  patrol  should  shout  a 
great  deal  in  the  course  of  the  night,  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  notice  to  the  thieves  that  there  is  a  guard 
provided,  and  that  it  may  be  known  that  the  watch¬ 
men  are  not  asleep.  In  most  cases,  however,  it  is 
very  quiet  before  morning,  and  I  have  often  been 
awakened  by  the  snoring  of  the  guard.  Two  or  three 
of  them  will  go  off  to  sleep,  having  arranged  to  serve 
in  turn,  and  one  is  left  on  duty ;  he  soon  falls  to  sleep 
and  so  the  whole  posse  rest  until  morning,  or  until 
called  to  their  post  again  by  some  one  in  the  caravan. 
As  we  marched  in  the  day,  we  had  no  fear  of  molest¬ 
ation  except  at  night. 

On  the  following  day  we  crossed  the  boundary  of 
Armenia  and  Kurdistan.  The  highest  pass  was 
crossed  at  mid-day ;  it  had  an  elevation  of  about  seven 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  highest  point 
of  the  mountain  must  be  about  fifteen  hundred  feet 
higher  than  the  pass.  The  sides  of  the  mountains 
were  under  cultivation  quite  to  the  summit  of  the 
pass.  We  were  now  crossing  the  range  of  mountains 
which  lie  between  the  tributaries  of  the  Aras  on  the 
north,  and  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  called 


28 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


Murad  Tchai,  on  the  south  and  east.  The  whole 
region  between  Erzeroum  and  the  plain  of  Khoy  is 
mountainous  and  high.  Our  station  for  the  night 
was  called  Takah,  and  has  an  altitude  of  about  five 
thousand  feet.  On  the  east  of  this  village  we  crossed 
a  pass  at  an  altitude  of  seven  thousand  six  hundred  feet. 
On  reaching  the  plain  on  the  east  of  this  pass,  Mount 
Ararat  appeared  in  view  for  the  first  time,  and  to  the 
northeast,  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  distant.  The 
cone-like  peak  was  covered  with  snow,  the  only  snow 
now  visible.  No  part  of  the  mountain  was  seen  below 
the  snow  line  owing  to  other  mountains  in  the  way. 

After  riding  about  six  miles  on  the  plain,  passing 
the  village  of  Mullah  Suliman  on  our  left,  we  made 
our  manzil  at  the  village  of  Hoshean.  The  inhab¬ 
itants  were  Mohammedans  and  Armenians.  They 
brought  bread,  fruit,  and  horses  to  sell.  The  plain, 
though  fertile,  is  poorly  and  partially  cultivated.  It 
is  five  thousand  three  hundred  feet  above  the  sea. 
At  this  elevation,  and  at  six  o’clock  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  the  thermometer  registered  40°  F.  We  were 
repaid  for  an  early  morning  ride  by  seeing  Ararat 
at  sunrise.  The  summit  of  the  mountain  is  com¬ 
puted  to  be  at  least  seventeen  thousand  two  hun¬ 
dred  and  sixty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
has  been  thought  also  to  exceed  this  estimate.  Ara¬ 
rat  must  be  five  or  six  thousand  feet  higher  than  any 
other  mountain  in  this  region,  yet  the  mountains 
about  it  are  so  elevated  that  the  observer  loses  some- 


II.] 


KARA  KALLESIA. 


29 


what  of  the  impression  of  height  and  magnitude. 
We  passed  the  village  of  Paskek,  noted  for  its 
JCurdish  robbers,  and,  after  a  ride  of  seven  hours,  en¬ 
camped  near  the  cluster  of  hovels  called  Kara  Kal- 
lesia,  situated  near  the  Doshle  Tchai  or  Stone  River. 
The  name  Kara  Kallesia  means  black  church.  It  is 
so  called  on  account  of  the  dark  appearance  of  the 
stone  of  which  the  ancient  Armenian  church  in  this 
place  is  constructed.  Tradition  has  it  that  this  church 
was  founded  by  the  apostle  Thaddeus. 

Four  considerable  rivers  meet  in  the  plain  near 
Kara  Kallesia.  In  the  early  morning  we  crossed  the 
Doshle  Tchai,  and  following  the  valley  of  the  Murad 
Tchai,  pitched  our  tents  near  the  village  which  bears 
the  name  of  the  former  stream.  Most  part  of  the 
villages  in  this  region  consist  of  underground  dwell¬ 
ings.  The  people  appear  to  be  worthy  successors  of 
the  troglodytes  of  the  time  of  Xenophon. 

In  the  next  stage  our  route  passed  the  ancient 
monasteiy  of  Utch  Kallesia,  or  the  three  churches. 
The  village  in  which  the  church  stands  is  a  collection 
of  miserable  huts  occupied  by  Armenians.  The 
building  is  a  large  and  solid  structure  of  smooth 
dressed  stone.  Armenians  claim  that  the  edifice  was 
constructed  fifteen  hundred  years  ago.  It  is  in  a  good 
state.  The  floor  is  of  stone.  The  form  is  that  of  the 
cross.  A  dome  of  stone  rests  upon  heavy  stone  pil¬ 
lars.  We  read  that  Gregory  the  Illuminator  baptized 
near  this  place  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  thousand 


30 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[II. 


Armenians.  It  is  also  asserted,  with  much  assurance, 
that  Gregory  founded  this  monastery.  Although  the 
Armenians  practise  immersion,  yet  the  pictures  on 
the  walls  of  this  church  represent  the  baptism  of 
Christ  to  have  been  by  pouring.  Many  handkerchiefs 
were  hung  about  the  altar.  They  are  votive  offerings 
of  the  credulous,  and  are  designed  for  the  service  of 
the  church.  There  appears  to  be  a  great  mania  in 
Armenian  churches  for  handkerchiefs.  I  suppose  it 
to  have  come  from  the  tradition  given  by  many 
writers,  and  current  among  Armenians,  that  Christ 
took  a  handkerchief,  and,  spreading  it  upon  his  own 
face,  caused  his  own  features  to  be  impressed  upon  it, 
and  sent  it  to  Abgarus,  the  king  of  Armenia,  who 
was  thereby  cured  of  his  malady,  and  became  a  Chris¬ 
tian.  Handkerchiefs  with  the  likeness  of  Christ  upon 
them  are  common  in  the  churches,  and  among  the 
common  people  there  is  prevalent  a  superstitious 
reverence  for  handkerchiefs  which  have  been  conse¬ 
crated. 

We  were  conducted  by  a  priest  to  a  room  where  we 
were  shown  the  tomb  of  John  the  Baptist.  It  is  said 
that  half  his  body  lies  here  under  a  stone  which  is 
covered  with  a  silk  cloth.  We  were  shown  also  many 
hands  made  of  brass.  These  were  placed  on  the  altar. 
The  brass  hands  were  said  to  be  substitutes  for  the 
gold  ones,  which  were  once  in  this  place,  and  which 
had  been  either  stolen  or  put  to  a  secular  use. 

Leaving  Utch  Kallesia,  we  rode  to  Deadeen.  This 


II] 


THE  YEZDEES. 


3i 


in  former  years  was  an  important  town,  but  is  now  a 
filthy,  miserable  place,  six  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  From  Deadeen  we  passed  over  a  rugged 
region  in  the  vicinity  of  Ararat.  The  plains  and  moun¬ 
tains  were  covered  with  masses  of  black  rock,  and  Ara¬ 
rat  was  plainly  seen  on  the  north  of  our  road,  and  about 
fifty  miles  distant.  About  one-third  of  the  height  ap¬ 
peared  to  be  covered  with  snow.  We  camped  for 
the  night  at  Kizil  Diza,  a  small  village  of  hovels  in- 
habitated  by  Yezdees  or  Devil  worshippers. 

There  have  been  many  different  opinions  entertained 
concerning  the  origin  of  the  Yezdees.  They  appear 
to  be  a  religious  sect  whose  origin  is  not  disclosed  by 
any  record.  Until  1847  they  were  supposed  by  the 
Turkish  authorities  to  be  non-Mohammedan,  and  were 
therefore  exempt  from  the  military  conscription.  Sub¬ 
sequent  to  this  date,  they  were  held  to  be  Moham¬ 
medan,  and  so  subject  to  the  conscription  as  are  the 
Druses  and  Anseyare.  But  they  could  not  become 
regular  soldiers  without  violating  the  laws  regulating 
some  of  their  religious  ceremonies.  The  bath  which 
every  Turkish  soldier  is  required  to  take  every  week, 
is  pollution  to  the  Yezdees,  because  they  are  defiled 
by  contact  with  other  sects.  The  blue  color  of  the 
Turkish  uniform  is  prohibited  by  their  religious  law. 
There  are  also  certain  articles  of  food  of  the  Turkish 
soldiers,  which  the  Yezdees  religiously  reject.  They 
speak  the  Kurdish  language,  and  are  found  in  several 
places  of  Kurdistan. 


32 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


The  people  of  this  sect  have  been  greatly  oppressed. 
Their  children  were  lawful  objects  of  sale  for  debt,  and 
Yezdees  have  been  put  to  death.  A  firman  was  secured 
for  them  from  the  Sultan  by  Layard.  It  forbade  the 
sale  of  their  children  as  slaves,  granted  religious  liberty, 
placing  them  on  an  ec[ual  footing  with  other  sects,  and 
relieved  them  from  such  military  regulations  as  were 
incompatible  with  their  religious  duties.  They  have 
priests  and  dervishes  who  wear  red  and  black  turbans, 
and  dark-coloured  dresses,  sometimes  putting  on  white 

robes.  The  brazen  peacock  is  a  testimonial  of  their 
mission. 

The  principal  tenets  of  the  sect  are,— that  Christ 
will  come  to  govern  the  world,  and  will  be  succeeded 
by  the  Mahde ;  that  there  is  a  purgatory  and  Moham¬ 
medans  will  be  punished  eternally.  Proselytes  are 
not  received,  and  circumcision  is  optional.  Children 
are  baptized  in  consecrated  water,  and  they  observe  a 
fast  of  forty  days  in  the  spring  time.  The  fast  may  be 
observed  by  proxy,  and  one  meal  in  twenty-four  hours 
is  lawful  in  the  fast.  Monogamy  and  polygamy  are 
both  permitted.  The  khalafate  is  by  inheritance,  as  is 
the  priesthood  also.  Priests  must  marry,  if  at  all,  in 
the  family  of  a  priest.  In  the  burial  service  there  is  a 
preliminary  .washing,  and  the  face  of  the  dead  is  placed 
toward  the  north  star,  instead  of  toward  Mekkah  as 
in  the  burial  of  Mohammedans.  They  do  not  wor¬ 
ship  fire,  but  pass  the  hands  through  the  fire  in  some 
acts  of  worship.  In  prayer,  their  prostrations  are 


IL]  TENETS  AND  RITES  OF  THE  YEZDEES. 


33 


made  toward  the  north  star.  They  are  believed  to 
recognize  a  good  and  an  evil  spirit,  or  principal.  It 
has  been  said  that  they  worship  the  sun.  Forbes  says 
that  they  worship  the  rising  sun  as  an  emblem  of 
Christ ;  but  to  this  it  is  answered  that  this  profession 
was  made  by  Yezdees  to  please  a  Christian  foreigner. 
It  is  said  that  the  Yezdee  at  sunrise  turns  his  face  to 
the  East,  and  kisses  the  first  rays  of  sunlight,  and  that 
one  of  this  sect  will  not  spit  in  the  fire. 

The  cock  is  chosen  as  an  emblem,  because  that  fowl 
is  the  harbinger  of  day.  He  is  called  Malake  Taoos, 
the  king  or  angel  of  light.  The  name  of  this  sect  is 
said  to  have  come  from  Azed.  There  is  a  tradition 
that  this  people  are  remnants  of  a  colony  from  the 
north  of  Syria.  The  Yezdees  have  been  called  Devil 
worshippers  by  the  natives  of  Persia  and  Turkey  under 
the  impression  that  they  worship  Satan.  Kizil  Diza  is 
the  seat  of  the  Turkish  quarantine  for  the  Persian 
border.  The  stage  from  this  place  passes  the  high 
mountain  ranges  which  form  the  boundary  between 
Turkey  and  Persia.  The  country  presents  a  succession 
of  mountains  and  plains  destitute  of  verdure,  and  for 
the  most  part  untilled. 

This  border  land  has  for  a  long  time  been  disputed 
ground  between  the  Sultan  and  the  Shah,  and  the  con¬ 
venient  place  for  reprisals.  The  Turkish  Kurds  fre¬ 
quently  make  raids  upon  the  Persian  villages  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  mountains.  These  expeditions  for 
plunder  receive  little  or  no  attention  from  the  Turkish 
3 


34 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


authorities,  and  the  Persians  are  obliged  to  find  redress 
by  retaliation.  The  boundary  as  now  settled  was  fixed 
by  commissioners  appointed  by  Great  Britain  and  Rus¬ 
sia  at  the  request  of  the  Sultan  and  the  King  of  Persia. 
By  a  treaty  signed  in  June,  1847,  the  boundaries  were 
defined.  In  1848  a  new  commission  was  raised  to  make 
a  survey  of  the  boundary.  They  began  at  Bagdad, 
passed  through  Kurdistan  to  Ararat,  and  completed 
their  work  September  16th,  1852.  The  determination 
of  the  border  has  not  prevented  the  depredations  of 
the  Kurds.  The  border  towns  are  frequently  alarmed 
by  the  predatory  bands  of  men  like  Sheik  Abdallah, 
Beder  Khan  Bey,  Nurullah,  Khan  Abdallah,  and  Khan 
Mohammad.  The  passage  of  the  border  reminded  us 
that  we  had  now  entered  the  land  of  the  Shah ;  but 
there  was  no  marked  feature  of  the  country  that  could 
possibly  suggest  the  fact.  It  was  not  until  some  days 
later  that  the  change  became  apparent.  The  people  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  border  on  either  side  are  Turks  and 
Kurds.  One  of  the  first  villages,  through  which  we 
passed  after  crossing  the  boundary,  was  suffering  from 
cholera.  The  disease  had  prevailed  during  the  summer 
in  quite  all  Persia.  It  is  estimated  that  two  thousand 
people  died  in  the  course  of  three  months,  in  the  plains 
of  Khoy  and  Oroomiah. 

It  was  the  practice  of  Persians  to  treat  the  cholera 
by  applications  of  cold  water.  It  is  said  that  water 
was  poured  on  the  patient  until  the  last  moment.  But 
this  treatment  is,  I  think,  quite  out  of  use  in  these 


n-] 


PLAIN  OF  KILO  V  , 


35 


times.  When  a  person  is  attacked  with  the  malady, 
there  is  little  or  no  hope  entertained  of  recovery,  and 
therefore  but  little  is  done.  It  is  said  that  Moham¬ 
medans  trust  to  fate,  but  in  case  of  the  prevalence  of 
cholera,  the  well  people  trust  more  to  flight.  The  passes 
near  the  border  are  guarded  by  cavalry  who  levy  on 
every  load  of  merchandise  a  tax  of  a  few  shahees  for 
their  own  benefit.  On  the  1 2th  of  October  we  descended 
to  the  plain  of  Khoy.  The  pass  has  an  elevation  of  six 
thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  The  descent 
to  the  east  is  rough  and  tedious,  and  required  five  hours 
to  reach  the  village  of  Para,  two  thousand  feet  below 
the  summit  of  the  pass.  The  rills  of  water  and  fertile 
gardens  of  the  plain  furnished  a  pleasing  contrast  to 
the  barren  regions  over  which  we  had  come.  The 
houses  of  the  villages  were  much  better  than  anything 
we  had  seen  in  Eastern  Turkey,  poor  as  these  may  be. 
The  water  courses  are  here  planted  with  willow  and 
poplar  trees,  and  the  gardens  yield  apricots,  walnuts, 
apples,  grapes,  melons,  and  other  fruits. 

We  left  the  city  of  Khoy  some  distance  from  us,  to 
the  east  and  north,  and  pitched  our  tents  near  the  vil¬ 
lage,  called  Pa  Baba,  or  the  Foot  of  the  Father.  Our 
route  now  lay  to  the  south,  and  crossed  a  succession  of 
plains  and  mountain  ridges.  The  latter  are  spurs  of 
the  principal  range  which  we  passed  a  few  days  since. 
On  the  15th  we  ascended  the  ridge  which  separates 
the  plains  of  Khoy  and  Salmas.  From  the  top  of  this 
pass  we  saw,  for  the  first  time,  the  Dareatche  Shahe, 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[II. 


36 


as  Lake  Oroomiah  is  called  by  Persians.  The  bright 
sunlight  from  a  cloudless  sky  was  reflected  from  the 
waters  of  this  sea  as  from  a  mirror.  The  name  by 
which  this  body  of  water  is  commonly  known  to  many 
Europeans  and  Americans  is  entirely  erroneous,  for  it 
is  not  properly  termed  a  lake  since  the  waters  are  salt, 
and  the  name  Oroomiah  is  not  applied  to  it  by  Per¬ 
sians  except  as  they  adopt  the  term  used  by  foreigners. 

Descending  the  pass  to  the  south,  we  crossed  the 
plain  of  Salmas.  This  plain  is  the  valley  of  a  small 
stream  which  flows  from  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan 
to  the  Shahee  Sea.  The  greatest  width  of  the  valley  is 
ten  to  twelve  miles,  and  the  length  about  twenty  miles. 
The  eastern  extremity  contiguous  to  the  sea  is  a 
morass.  The  old  city  of  Salmas  is  near  the  head  of 
the  valley.  The  higher  part  of  the  valley  is  fertile  and 
extensively  cultivated.  Mohammedans,  Armenians, 
and  Nestorians  inhabit  the  villages  and  till  the  soil. 
Delamon  is  the  largest  town  in  the  valley.  Roman 
Catholics  have  for  a  long  time  sustained  a  mission 
in  this  plain.  Their  efforts  have  been  with  Arme¬ 
nians  and  Nestorians.  The  American  missionaries 
living  in  Oroomiah  are  represented  here  by  Nestorian 
teachers  and  preachers,  and  there  are  a  few  converts  and 
congregations  among  the  Nestorians.  In  former  years 
some  of  the  missionaries  have  temporarily  resided  here. 
On  the  morning  of  the  16th  we  ascended  the  pass 
which  separates  the  plains  of  Salmas  and  Gavalan. 
The  pathway  crosses  a  mountain  spur.  The  eastern 


II.] 


TERGAWAR  AND  GAR  WAR. 


37 


end  of  this  ridge  terminates  at  the  sea  shore.  A  large 
rock,  which  seems  to  have  been  broken  from  the  main 
land,  stands  in  the  water  a  short  distance  from  the 
rocky  point.  This  rock  is  said  to  have  been  once  con¬ 
nected  with  the  shore  by  a  bridge.  It  is  a  tradition 
that  in  times  of  persecution,  Christians  were  thrown 
from  the  rock  into  the  sea  by  the  Mohammedans. 

From  the  top  of  the  pass  quite  all  the  sea  and 
plain  of  Oroomiah  are  visible,  and  surrounded  by  high 
mountains.  On  the  west  the  Karduchian,  on  the 
north,  the  ill-defined  spurs  which  centre  in  the  Kara 
Dag.  On  the  east,  the  Sahund  which  has  an  altitude 
of  near  eleven  thousand  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.  The  Sahund  and  spurs  of  the  Karduchian 
range  appear  to  unite  on  the  south  of  the  lake. 

The  small  plain  on  the  south  of  the  pass  takes  its 
name  from  a  village  located  near  the  principal  pass  of 
the  mountain.  It  is  not  separated,  however,  from  the 
low  lands  which  lie  on  the  western  shore,  except  in  a 
small  part,  contiguous  to  the  mountains.  The  inden¬ 
tures  formed  by  the  small  valleys  between  the  mount¬ 
ain  spurs,  give  a  convenient  division  to  the  whole 
stretch  of  land  on  the  lake  shore.  The  belt  of  land 
between  the  lake  and  the  main  range  of  mountains 
on  the  west,  called  Tergawar  and  Garwar,  varies  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  miles  in  width.  It  has  been  esti¬ 
mated  to  be  from  four  thousand  to  four  thousand  seven 
hundred  feet  above  the  ocean.  Through  this  belt  of 
land,  three  rivers  flow  from  the  mountains  on  the  west, 


38 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ii. 


to  the  lake ;  they  are  the  Nazloo,  the  Shakir  and  the 
Barandooz.  Each  river  gives  its  name  to  the  small 
tract  of  land  through  which  it  flows.  Much  of  this 
tract  is  barren.  That  part  only  is  tilled  which  can  be 
supplied  with  water  from  these  rivers,  or  their  tribu¬ 
taries.  The  plains  called  Meanjub,  Sulduz,  and  Souj 
Bolok  are  south  of  Oroomiah.  The  city  of  Maragha 
is  nearly  opposite  the  city  of  Oroomiah  and  on  the 
western  shore.  It  is  famous  as  the  capital  of  the 
Moguls  under  Huluku  Khan.  The  Shahee  Sea  is  about 
ninety  miles  long,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  wide. 
The  waters  resemble  those  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  do 
not  support  animal  life.  The  marshy  borders  of  the 
sea  are  filled  with  reeds  and  grass,  and  are  the  resort 
of  water  fowl,  among  which  the  flamingo  is  sometimes 
found.  On  one  of  the  many  islands  the  Mogul  prince 
is  said  to  have  deposited  his  treasures. 

In  the  summer  season,  the  marshes,  filled  with  saline 
matter,  emit  an  odour  which  may  be  likened  to  that 
which  comes  from  a  soap  factory.  It  fills  the  plain, 
and  is  driven  by  the  winds  far  up  on  the  mountains. 
The  white  incrustation  of  salt  which  lies  upon  the 
beach,  resembles  in  the  distance  the  foam  of  the  sea. 
As  we  descended  the  pass  to  the  plain  of  Gavalan, 
we  were  met  by  Mr.  Coan,  who  had  come  on  from 
Oroomiah  with  horses  and  wagons  to  escort  our  party 
to  that  city.  Leaving  the  main  route,  and  riding  for 
some  fifteen  minutes  time,  we  came  to  the  village  of 
Gavalan,  and  dismounted  at  the  gate  of  the  house 


II.] 


GA  VALAN—EARL  V  ENTERPRISE. 


39 


owned  by  the  Mission.  The  premises  consist  of  a 
dwelling-house  of  three  or  four  rooms,  located  in  the 

centre  of  a  small  tract  of  land  which  is  surrounded  by 

/> 

a  high  wall.  The  place  is  unoccupied,  as  the  mission¬ 
aries  do  not  reside  here.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
Mission  to  the  Nestorians,  Mr.  Stocking  obtained  a 
firman  from  the  Shah,  authorizing  the  establishment 
of  an  agricultural  or  manual  labor  school  at  this  place 
and  granting  certain  privileges  for  this  purpose. 

There  were  two  fatal  obstacles  in  the  way,  and  pre¬ 
venting  the  success  of  the  undertaking ;  these  were  the 
lack  of  water  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  lack 
of  funds  with  which  to  get  the  water  from  beneath  the 
ground.  An  effort  was  made  to  introduce  the  American 
cotton,  but  the  enterprise  was  not  carried  forward  to 
any  permanent  and  important  results.  All  such  under¬ 
takings  are  so  far  in  advance  of  the  habits,  wants,  and 
tastes  of  the  people  that  they  can  be  made  successful 
in  a  large  measure,  only  by  the  outlay  of  large  sums 
of  money,  or  by  the  most  favourable  conditions  in 
location. 

On  the  morning  of  the  1 8th,  we  set  out  for  our  last 
manzil,  Oroomiah,  said  to  be  about  thirty  miles  dis¬ 
tant.  The  ladies  and  children  rode  in  the  wagon,  the 
gentlemen  on  horseback.  The  road  was  no  more  than 
the  usual  caravan  track ;  but  the  level  plain  presented 
no  serious  obstacles,  and  a  few  bridges  had  been  con¬ 
structed  with  a  width  sufficient  to  permit  the  passage  of 
wheels.  As  we  approached  the  city,  we  were  met  by 


40 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS, 


[rr. 


Van  Norden,  Mr.  Labaree,  and  several  natives  of  the 
country.  As  is  customary  in  Persia  the  pace  of  the 
horses  was  quickened  as  we  came  near  the  city.  The 
road  being  now  more  firmly  beaten  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  city  there  was  a  rapid  movement.  The  men  on 
horseback  rode  at  a  gallop,  which  was  quickened  to  a 
run  as  we  entered  the  Seir  gate.  Filing  through  a 
narrow  street  we  were  soon  searching  our  way  through 
the,  to  us,  intricate  courts  of  the  premises  of  the 
American  Mission.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  we 
had  unpacked  our  boxes  of  household  goods,  and,  as 
one  of  the  first  acts  in  our  new  life,  sat  down  with  Abra¬ 
ham  and  John  for  the  study  of  the  Azarbijan-Turkish 
language. 

Within  a  fortnight  after  our  arrival,  the  Mission 
suffered  a  great  loss  in  the  death  of  Mr.  Cochran.  He 
had  accompanied  our  party  from  Constantinople,  and 
was  ill  of  fever  during  the  last  few  days  of  the  journey, 
although  able  to  ride.  He  had  been  connected  with 
the  Mission  to  the  Nestorians  during  a  period  of  near 
twenty-five  years.  The  burial  was  made  in  the  little 
graveyard  just  without  the  gate  of  the  village  of  Seir, 
on  the  mountain  of  that  name.  From  this  place  there 
is  an  extended  prospect  of  the  villages  and  city,  and  of 
the  plain  and  lake,  to  the  Sahund  mountains  on  the 
east.  In  this  village  was  located  the  seminary  for  young 
men,  which,  during  several  years,  had  been  in  charge 
of  Mr.  Cochran. 


CHAPTER  III. 


Oroomiah — Population  and  Races — Location  of  the  Missions — En¬ 
virons — Climate,  etc. — Productions  of  the  Plain — Government  of  the 
District — Ardashir  Khan — American  Missionaries — Summary  of  the 
Plistory  of  the  Nestorians — Patriarchate  of  Mosul  and  Mar  Elias — 
Of  the  Mar  Shimoons — The  Chaldean  Nestorians — Distinguishing 
Tenets — Present  Condition  and  Chief  Characteristics — Effect  of  Mis¬ 
sionary  Effort — Statistics  of  the  Mission  in  the  Thirty-fourth  year — 
Number  of  Nestorians— Ecclesiastical  Organizations — Condition  of 
Persia  with  reference  to  Missions  in  1871 — Language  used — Schools 
— Press — Statistics — Stations  and  Out-stations — Method  of  Control. 

Oroomiah  is  the  largest  town  on  the  plain  of  that 
name.  It  is  believed  to  occupy  the  site  of  a  very 
ancient  city,  which  Persian  writers  say  was  constructed 
by  the  fire  worshippers  and  the  Magi.  They  record 
that  the  fire  altars  were  numerous  in  this  province,  and 
that  owing  to  this  fact,  it  received  the  name  which  it 
now  retains,  Azarbijan,  or  the  Land  of  Fire.  Some 
writers  have  it  that  Zoroaster  was  born  here,  but  others 
say  that  Ra  or  Rhages  was  the  place  of  his  birth. 

The  circumference  of  the  wall  of  Oroomiah  is  stated 
to  be  twelve  thousand  paces.  The  wall  is  of  mud  and 
sun-dried  brick,  and  the  gates  are  of  wood.  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  filthy.  The  open  spaces  and  deserted 
portions  are  filled  with  rubbish,  and  mud  holes,  and 

41 


42 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[hi. 


small  ponds  of  stagnant  water.  A  portion  of  the  bazaar 
is  in  fair  condition.  The  importance  of  the  town  is  due 
to  its  being  the  seat  of  the  government  for  the  district. 
The  population  is  conjectured  to  be  about  twenty 
thousand  souls.  The  Jewish  households  paying  taxes 
are  two  hundred,  or  about  one  thousand  souls.  The 
Nestorians  in  the  city  number  about  one  thousand 
souls,  and  the  Armenians  five  hundred.  The  balance 
of  the  people  are  Mohammedans,  and  chiefly  Afshar 
Turks.  The  Afshars  are  a  Tartar,  or  Turkish  tribe, 
which  has  been  settled  for  a  long  time  in  this  province. 
The  Nestorians  live  in  the  western  part,  and  the 
Armenians  and  Jews  are  more  in  the  centre.  The 
part  in  which  the  Nestorians  live  is  known  as  Mot 
Miriam.  It  is  so-called  from  the  church  of  Mary,  a 
very  old  and  rude  structure.  There  are  but  few  Arme¬ 
nians  in  the  city ;  but  a  considerable  number  of  this 
people  inhabit  villages  of  the  plain. 

The  buildings  occupied  by  the  American  mission¬ 
aries  are  near  the  church  of  Mary,  and  in  the  quarter 
occupied  by  Nestorians.  The  church  and  nunnery  of 
the  Roman  Catholics  are  near  the  dwellings  of  the  Ar¬ 
menians.  The  environs  of  Oroomiah  are  fertile  gardens, 
which,  however,  indicate  that  the  cultivation  of  former 
years  was  greater  than  now.  The  ditch  around  the  city 
is  the  receptacle  of  filth  in  many  places,  and  contains 
many  pools  of  stagnant  water.  Two  btick  towers 
stand  in  a  ploughed  field  a  short  distance  from  the 
walls  on  the  south  side  of  the  town.  Kufe  characters 


III.] 


OR  0  OMIA  H—CL IMA  TE. 


43 


remaining  here  and  there,  and  the  general  resemblance 
to  other  structures  in  other  places,  may  reasonably  be 
thought  to  determine  the  period  of  their  construction. 

The  climate  of  the  plain  is  characterized  by  cold  in 
winter,  and  great  heat  in  summer,  and  by  malaria.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  unhealthful  regions  of  Persia ;  but 
the  unhealthfulness  is  attributed  to  the  great  amount 
of  irrigation,  and  the  attendant  overflow  of  low  lands. 
The  mortality,  however,  among  foreigners  resident 
here,  has  been  much  less  during  a  few  years  past  than 
at  an  earlier  period.  The  difference  is  due,  doubtless, 
to  the  improved  condition  of  the  dwellings  occupied, 
the  mode  of  life,  and  the  better  knowledge  of  the  con¬ 
ditions  to  health.  The  winters  are  colder,  and  more 
snow  falls  than  the  latitude  would  lead  one  to  expect. 
During  a  good  part  of  the  winter  of  1871-2  there  was 
not  less  than  three  feet  of  snow  on  the  plain.  The 
altitude  of  the  situation  may  explain  the  fact.  The 
principal  productions  of  the  plain  are  wheat,  barley 
and  fruits.  The  Russian  provinces  on  the  north  have 
been,  of  late  years,  a  good  market,  whither  much  of 
the  wheat  has  been  conveyed.  It  is  said  that  the  great 
demand  for  wheat  and  its  exportation  to  Russia  was 
one  cause  of  the  late  famine  in  Western  Persia. 

At  this  time  the  government  of  the  districts  of  Khoy 
and  Oroomiah  was  with  the  Sujou  al  Doulat.  He 
received  appointment  from  the  Shah,  but  was  nomi¬ 
nally  subject  to  the  heir  apparent,  the  governor  of  the 
province  of  Azarbijan.  The  Sujou  al  Doulat  resided 


44 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[ill. 


at  Khoy,  leaving  the  affairs  of  Oroomiah  with  his  son 
Ardashir  Khan.  The  word  Sujou  means  strong  and 
courageous,  and  the  whole  title  means  the  courageous 
and  strong  one  of  the  kingdom.  The  term  seems  to 
be  intended  to  indicate  the  chief  traits  of  the  man’s 
character,  and  most  prominent  feature  of  his  looks  and 
bearing.  These  qualities,  however,  were  not  so  con¬ 
spicuous  in  the  son,  the  governor  of  Oroomiah.  My 
first  visit  to  the  young  prince  did  not  leave  on  my  mind  a 
pleasant  impression  of  his  natural  abilities  and  qualities, 
although  he  was  duly  courteous.  He  received  us  in  a 
garden  just  without  the  Seir  gate,  in  a  summer  house. 
In  stature,  features,  and  complexion  he  is  a  typical 
representative  of  his  race.  He  wore  a  cashmere  gown, 
the  border  of  which  was  trimmed  with  fur ;  a  black 
hat  of  lambskin  or  Astrakan,  and  without  brim  ;  pants 
of  black  broad  cloth,  and  white  cotton  socks.  The 
room  was  furnished  with  Persian  rugs,  and  chairs. 
The  entertainment  consisted  of  a  quiet  conversation 
conducted  by  Mr.  Labaree  and  the  prince  in  the 
Turkish  tongue.  The  kalyon  was  passed  around 
twice,  and  the  tea  twice,  after  the  most  approved  cus¬ 
tom  of  Persia,  in  tiny  cups.  The  prince  is  kindly  dis¬ 
posed  to  foreigners  but  much  addicted  to  some  vices. 
Several  years  subsequent  to  this  time,  the  Sujou  al 
Doulet  became  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  Shah. 
He  was  removed  from  office,  and  finally  ordered  to 
Tehran,  and  died  on  the  way  from  Tabriz  to  the  capi¬ 
tal.  Ardashir  Khan  was  ordered  with  his  regiment 


III.] 


AMERICAN  MISSIONARIES. 


45 


to  Southern  Persia.  The  American  missionaries  were 
the  only  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  Oroomiah  at 
the  time  of  my  arrival  there,  and  the  only  foreigners  in 
the  place,  except  the  French  Papists.  This  will  be  reason 
sufficient  for  my  mention  of  them  only  as  foreigners. 
The  buildings  occupied  by  the  missionaries  since  the 
year  1835  were  leased  of  a  Persian ;  but  have  since 
been  purchased.  They  consisted  of  two  principal 
structures  on  opposite  sides  of  a  court,  with  attach¬ 
ments  for  chapel  and  press  and  school.  The  buildings 
occupied  as  dwellings  are  two  stories  high,  and  con¬ 
structed  of  sun-dried  brick.  In  one,  there  were  apart¬ 
ments  for  three  families.  The  school  for  native  girls 
occupies  suitable  rooms  in  one  end  of  this  building. 
The  chapel,  press-room,  and  dispensary  were  very 
cheap  and  humble  structures  in  adjacent  yards. 
Some  of  these  buildings  have  since  been  torn  down, 
and  new  ones  put  up,  and  the  dwellings  have  been 
greatly  improved. 

The  seminary  for  young  men  at  Seir  was  a  part  of 
the  premises  occupied  by  the  missionaries  as  a  summer 
resort.  This  building  was  also  of  sun-dried  brick,  and 
so  dilapidated  as  to  be  near  falling.  In  the  course  of 
the  years  covered  by  these  pages,  the  seminary  has 
been  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  the  city  and  near  the 
Seir  gate.  Here  a  very  large  building  has  been 
erected  in  spacious  grounds,  amid  plane  and  poplar 
trees,  and  a  college  established  under  the  supervision 
of  Dr.  Shedd.  On  the  same  grounds,  private  dwell- 


46 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[hi. 


ings,  and  a  dispensary  and  hospital  have  been  erected ; 
the  latter  under  the  charge  of  Dr.  Cochran.  The  re¬ 
port  of  the  British  consul  sent  to  examine  into  the 
state  of  affairs  subsequent  to  the  war  with  Sheik  Ab¬ 
dallah,  describes  the  college  as  a  large  and  “  massive  ” 
structure. 

The  mission  to  the  Nestorians  of  Oroomiah  and 
the  adjacent  mountains,  was  opened  by  the  American 
Board  in  1834,  for  the  express  purpose  of  evangelizing 
the  Nestorians.  Some  knowledge  of  the  past  history 
of  this  people  is  so  essential  to  an  understanding  of 
their  present  condition,  and  of  any  effort  in  their  be¬ 
half,  that  I  shall  venture  to  give  some  account  of 
them,  at  the  risk  of  repeating  that  which  may  be 
known  to  many  persons  who  read  these  pages.  The 
Nestorians  are  known  as  a  Christian  sect,  and  not 
as  a  race  of  people.  It  has  been  impossible  to  de¬ 
termine  whether  they  are  of  the  Chaldean,  the  Syr¬ 
ian,  or  some  other  stock.  Doubt  has  been  expressed 
as  to  their  being  of  either  Chaldean,  Assyrian,  or  Syr¬ 
ian  origin.  Dr.  Grant  attempted  to  establish  their 
identity  with  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel,  but  it  is  conceded 
that  the  argument  fails,  since  it  rests  upon  characteris¬ 
tics  common  to  Orientals. 

The  written  and  spoken  language  of  the  Nestorians 
is  Syriac.  It  is  admitted,  however,  that  this  fact  does 
not  establish  their  race  connection  with  the  Syrians. 
It  is  probable  that,  at  the  first,  the  so-called  nation 
was  a  mixture  of  Chaldeans  and  Syrians,  and  other 


in.] 


HI  ST  OR  Y  OF  THE  NESTORIANS. 


47 


people,  who  were  Christians  of  the  Syriac  Church,  and 
speaking  the  Syriac  language.  In  the  persecutions 
which  followed  all  who  adopted  the  sentiments  of 
Nestorius,  these  people  fled  to  Persia,  where  they 
found  protection.  Their  settlement  here  was  not  the 
result  of  one  general  movement,  but  a  gradual  growth 
from  successive  emigrations  from  several  quarters,  of 
those  persons  who  were  united  by  a  common  heresy, 
and  were  objects  of  persecution.  The  heresy  of  Nes¬ 
torius  was  that  he  taught  the  union  of  two  natures  in 
Christ,  in  opposition  to  the  then  prevalent  doctrine  of 
one  divine  nature.  He  was  condemned  by  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Ephesus,  A.  d.  431,  and  banished.  The  rivalry 
of  the  Roman  and  Persian  rulers  inclined  the  latter  to 
protect  all  who  fled  from  the  dominions  of  the  former. 

Bishoprics  subject  to  the  see  of  Antioch  were  early 
founded  in  many  Eastern  cities.  A  struggle  for  su¬ 
premacy  was  carried  on  by  the  different  sects  in  Persia. 
The  Nestorians  became  ascendant.  In  the  fifth  cen¬ 
tury  they  secured  the  election  of  Babeus  to  the  arch¬ 
bishopric  of  Selucia.  This  see  became  thereafter  inde¬ 
pendent.  It  is  charged  upon  the  Nestorians  that  they 
were  party  to  the  massacre  of  seven  thousand  Papists, 
to  secure  uniformity  of  faith  and  discipline.  As  early 
as  the  seventh  century,  the  missionaries  of  this  sect  had 
penetrated  India  and  China.  The  Nestorians  prospered 
during  the  reigns  of  the  Khalafahs  of  Bagdad,  and  on 
the  rise  of  that  dynasty  the  patriarch  removed  from 
Selucia  to  Bagdad.  The  interval  between  A.  d.  762 


48 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[in. 


and  a.  d.  1258,  was  the  period  of  the  greatest  activity 
of  this  Church.  It  was  followed  by  one  of  reverses  and 
persecution.  By  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  they  had 
become  nearly  extinct  in  the  countries  of  their  greatest 
achievements.  The  patriarchate  of  this  Church  was  in  an 
unsettled  state  during  three  hundred  and  twelve  years. 
It  was  finally  settled  at  Mosul  in  the  person  of  Mar  Elias, 
from  whom  the  patriarchs  called  Eliases,  have  come. 
On  the  death  of  the  incumbent  in  a.d.  1551,  only  one 
metropolitan  remained,  and  three  were  necessary  for 
the  consecration  of  a  patriarch.  The  successor-elect 
was  therefore  sent  to  the  Pope  of  Rome  for  consecration. 

Twenty-four  years  after  this  event,  Shimoon,  the 
bishop  of  Salmas,  Jelu,  and  Sert,  declared  his  inde¬ 
pendence  of  Elias,  and  was  chosen  patriarch  of  the 
Nestorians  of  Kurdistan.  From  him  we  have  the  line 
of  patriarchs  known  as  Mar  Shimoons.  The  Eliases 
have  resided  at  El  Kush,  near  Mosul,  and  ruled  over 
the  Nestorians  of  the  western  part  of  Kurdistan  and 
in  Mesopotamia. 

A  large  number  of  Nestorians  left  the  parent 
church  and  allied  themselves  to  the  Roman  Catholics. 
These  received  from  the  Pope  the  name  Chaldeans, 
which  they  now  retain.  A  patriarch  for  this  branch 
of  the  Church  was  consecrated  by  the  Pope  of  Rome 
a.d.  1681,  with  the  title  Mar  Yosif;  he  resided  at  Diar- 
beker  until  a.d.  1780.  At  this  time  Mar  Elias  also 
submitted  to  the  Pope,  and  the  separate  patriarchates 
ceased.  On  the  death  of  Elias  the  office  was  given 


III.] 


HISTOR  Y  OF  THE  NESTOR/ANS. 


49 


to  a  Papal  Nestorian  of  Salmas,  and  the  name  of  the 
patriarchate  was  henceforth  known  as  Mar  Nicolas. 
By  custom  of  succession  in  the  patriarchate,  the  office 
should  have  been  conferred  on  a  nephew  of  Elias.  The 
Mar  Shimoons,  therefore,  are  the  only  representatives 
of  the  ancient  Nestorian  Church.  They  reside  at  Kosh- 
annes,  and  proudly  assume  the  title  of  Patriarch  of  the 
East. 

The  Nestorian  Church  has  no  written  standard  of 
doctrinal  belief.  If  we  except  the  heresy  which  sepa¬ 
rated  them  from  the  parent  church,  it  may  be  said 
that  their  ecclesiastical  organization  and  ritual  is  the 
chief  feature  to  which  they  owe  their  perpetuity. 
There  are  many  practices  and  superstitions  preva¬ 
lent  among  this  people,  by  which  they  are  distin¬ 
guished  from  other  Oriental  churches.  All  orders  of 
the  clergy  are  celibates.  By  a  singular  law,  the  suc¬ 
cession  to  the  patriarchate  is  inherited  by  the  nephew 
of  the  Patriarch,  the  son  of  a  brother.  The  people 
know  little  or  nothing  of  Nestorius,  and  do  not 
attribute  their  origin  to  him,  except  as  they  have  been 
instructed  by  foreigners  to  this  effect.  They  profess 
to  be  the  spiritual  progeny  of  St.  Thomas  and  Thad- 
deus.  They  are  commonly  known  among  Moham¬ 
medans  by  the  name  Nasara,  or  Nazarenes. 

The  present  condition  of  this  people  appears  to  be 
a  great  improvement  upon  their  state  in  former  years. 
Their  condition  is,  however,  one  of  poverty,  ignorance 
and  simplicity.  Their  relations  to  the  Persian  gov- 
4 


5o 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ill. 


ernment  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  the  other 
sects  of  non- Mohammedans,  to  whom  reference  is 
made  in  subsequent  pages.  In  a  marked  degree,  the 
Nestorians  are  characterized  by  a  spirit  of  dependence 
and  docility.  They  love  to  regard  their  teachers  as 
fathers  appointed  to  supply  both  spiritual  and  daily 
bread.  Like  other  Orientals  they  are  greatly  influ¬ 
enced  by  envy,  and  so  widely  does  this  passion  pre¬ 
vail,  that  it  is  difficult  to  organize  them  for  permanent 
and  successful  work.  In  the  course  of  years  many 
of  them  have  learned  that  money  is  given  in  Europe 
and  America  for  missionary  purposes.  The  result  of 
this  knowledge  has  been  that  some  of  them  have  gone 
to  Europe  and  America,  obtaining  funds  under  the 
pretence  of  these  purposes.  Some  have  returned 
from  these  excursions  with  considerable  sums  of 
money,  to  be  invested  in  houses  and  lands,  and  fine 
garments. 

A  few  who  have  solicited  funds  abroad,  have  appar¬ 
ently  been  actuated  by  sincere  desires  to  benefit  their 
own  nation,  and  some  have  been  actuated  by  spite 
against  the  missionaries.  Others  of  them  have  vainly 
hoped  that  their  people  might  obtain  foreign  protec¬ 
tion  against  Mohammedan  oppression. 

Missionary  effort  among  Nestorians  has  done 
much  for  the  diffusion  of  intelligence  ;  but  in  a  gen¬ 
eral  way  only  to  the  greater  part  of  the  sect,  for  the 
most  part  of  this  people  have  adhered  to  the  old 
order  of  things.  The  purpose  declared  in  the  opening 


III.] 


HISTOR  Y  OF  THE  NESTORIANS. 


51 


of  the  mission  was  to  produce  a  reformation  within  the 
Church,  and  it  was  not  the  intention  of  the  movers  in  the 
undertaking  to  establish  a  new  order  of  ecclesiastical 
government.  All  the  real  reforms  were,  however, 
necessarily  innovations.  It  was  impossible  that  the 
Nestorian  Church  should  become  evangelical  without 
ceasing  to  exist,  or  without  losing  the  essential  features 
of  its  history  and  structure.  By  means  of  schools, 
hired  priests,  paid  teachers,  missionary  influence,  evan¬ 
gelical  truth,  spiritual  force,  and  the  hope  of  material 
gain  by  alliance  with  the  missionaries,  the  reformation 
gained  many  adherents  in  the  old  churches.  In  most 
of  the  villages  the  Protestant  element,  while  weak,  was 
tolerated ;  when  it  became  strong  and  self-asserting, 
attempts  were  made  toward  its  expulsion.  In  some 
instances,  the  evangelicals  were  most  numerous ;  but 
in  the  greater  number  of  the  congregations,  the  adher¬ 
ents  of  the  old  order  were  the  stronger  party,  and  the 
Protestants  were  not  permitted  to  continue  in  the  con¬ 
gregations.  They  therefore  formed  new  churches.  The 
process  of  disunion  culminated  in  1868.  The  patriarch, 
and  all  who  adhered  to  the  old  Church,  had  for  a  long 
time  manifested  great  hostility  to  the  new  doctrines, 
and  in  many  churches  the  Protestants  were  denied  the 
sacraments  and  ejected. 

At  this  time,  after  thirty-four  years  of  mission  labor, 
there  were  reported  to  be  eighty-five  places  in  which 
some  form  of  mission  work  was  carried  on.  There 
were  seven  hundred  and  twenty  communicants,  with 


52 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[hi. 


whom  there  were  in  the  congregations  nearly  two 
thousand  souls.  The  total  number  in  the  congrega¬ 
tions,  including  communicants,  was  two  thousand 
four  hundred  souls.  The  native  assistants  were  about 
one  hundred.  With  two  exceptions,  the  schools  were 
for  day  scholars,  and  together  they  contained  one 
thousand  pupils.  The  relative  strength  of  the  evangel¬ 
ical  movement  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
total  number  of  Nestorians  has  been  officially  reported 
to  be  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  souls,  and  in  Persia  twenty- 
five  thousand  souls.  As  the  final  severance  of  the 
Protestant  and  prelatical  elements  took  place,  the  clergy 
in  the  service  of  the  Mission  were  gathered  into  four 
ecclesiastical  bodies  called  in  the  Syriac,  Kanoosha. 
Each  one  had  its  own  territory,  and  the  basis  of  organi¬ 
zation  was  a  Confession  of  Faith  and  Rules  of  Dis¬ 
cipline.  In  all  the  previous  years  the  efforts  of  the 
Mission  in  all  essentials  of  efficient  service,  were 
directed  to  the  Nestorians. 

The  Mission  now  felt  the  importance  of  enlarging 
the  field  of  labour  so  as  to  embrace  other  people  ol 
Persia.  The  Board  of  Missions  was  urged  to  send 
men,  and  to  occupy  other  cities  with  American  mis¬ 
sionaries.  In  1869,  Mr.  Shedd  visited  the  city  of 
Hamadan,  and  was  most  cordially  received  by  the 
Armenians  of  that  place.  On  the  28th  of  May,  1870, 
the  Mission  by  a  formal  act  recommended  to  the  parent 
society  that  they  embrace  at  once  within  their  efforts 
the  Armenians  and  Mussulman  sects  of  Central  Persia 


III.] 


HISTOR  V  OF  THE  NESTORIANS . 


53 


by  planting  a  station  at  Hamadan,  and  they  recom¬ 
mended  also  the  sending  of  missionaries  to  Tabriz.  At 
this  time  the  name  of  the  Mission  was  changed  from 
that  of  the  Mission  to  the  Nestorians  to  that  of  the 
Mission  to  Persia.  In  accord  with  this  action  native 
colporteurs  were  sent  abroad.  A  preacher  was  sent  to 
Hamadan,  where  he  established  a  congregation  and 
school  among  the  Armenians.  A  colporteur  was  sent 
also  to  Tehran,  where  he  kept  a  book  room,  and 
preached  as  he  had  opportunity.  Another  went  to 
Tabriz,  where  he  entered  upon  a  work  like  that  opened 
in  the  other  cities. 

Ecclesiastical  changes  in  America  led  to  a  partition 
of  missions  between  Presbyterians  and  Congregation- 
alists,  and  the  Mission  to  Persia  was  transferred  to  the 
former  Church  in  the  autumn  of  1870.  The  real 
expansion  of  the  missionary  work  was  necessarily 
prospective ;  for  there  was  no  supply  of  men  from 
America  to  prosecute  the  plan.  There  were  at  this 
time  no  foreign  missionaries  of  any  society  east  of 
Oroomiah,  except  Mr.  Bruce  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  who  had  recently  gone  to  Julfah,  near  Ispahan. 

This  was  the  state  of  mission  work  in  Persia  at  the 
time  of  my  arrival  there  in  1871.  The  number  of 
male  missionaries  was  three.  One  of  this  number  left 
for  America  in  the  following  summer.  Two  men  were, 
expected  to  arrive  in  the  next  autumn.  The  language 
used  in  mission  work  was  the  Syriac,  and  the  Tartar 
to  a  less  extent,  and  only  in  services  intended  for  people 


54 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ill. 


other  than  Nestorians.  The  subject  most  urged  upon 
the  evangelical  Nestorians  was  self-support.  The 
Church  government  might  properly  be  termed  either 
Presbyterian  or  Congregational,  and  the  clergy  of  the 
Nestorians  had  no  very  distinct  ideas  on  the  subject. 
There  was  no  self-sustaining  church.  One  congrega¬ 
tion  contributed  one-half  the  support  of  its  native  pastor, 
and  a  few  congregations  paid  smaller  amounts.  All 
were  dependent  upon  the  Mission  for  support,  as  were 
the  schools  also.  The  pastors  were  usually  selected 
by  the  missionaries. 

The  village  schools  were  sustained  at  a  very  small 
expense.  The  school  for  girls  was  essentially  free  to 
as  many  pupils  as  could  be  accommodated.  The  ex¬ 
pense  of  tuition  and  board  of  the  young  men  in  the 
seminary  at  Seir  was  borne  by  the  Mission.  Medical 
aid  was  given  to  natives  by  the  physician  in  part,  and 
medicines  were  dispensed  free  of  cost.  The  printing 
press  had  for  a  long  time  been  in  operation  using  the 
Syriac  letters.  In  this  and  the  following  year  the 
famine  prevailed  in  Persia.  A  large  number  of  fam¬ 
ishing  refugees  from  other  provinces  were  assisted 
with  food,  and  some  were  helped  on  their  way  to 
Russia. 

The  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  was  carried  on 
chiefly  in  the  Nestorian  settlements  of  the  plain  and 
mountains  of  Persian  Kurdistan.  There  were  no 
scriptures  in  the  Azarbijan  or  Persian-Turkish  lan¬ 
guage.  The  Persian  scriptures  were  in  octavo  volumes 


III.] 


HISTOR  V  OF  THE  NESTORIANS. 


55 


only,  and  ill  adapted  to  general  circulation.  When  a 
proposition  was  made  this  year  by  a  gentleman  in 
England  to  pay  the  cost  of  sending  colporteurs  to 
Khorasan  and  Yezd  with  the  Gospels  by  Luke  and 
John  it  was  necessary  to  have  editions  of  these  gospels 
published  before  the  distribution  could  be  undertaken. 

The  progress  of  the  Mission  up  to  this  time  is  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  statistics  for  the  year  1871.  In  the  report 
there  is  specified  one  station,  or  that  of  Oroomiah, 
forty-eight  out-stations,  nine  pastors,  fifty-two  preach¬ 
ers,  forty-six  teachers,  one  thousand  and  twelve  pupils 
in  the  different  schools,  nine  organized  churches,  and 
somewhat  over  seven  hundred  communicants.  It 
should  be  understood  that  the  pupils  and  commu¬ 
nicants  were  wholly  from  the  Nestorians,  as  also  were 
the  teachers  and  preachers,  and  quite  all  the  attend¬ 
ants  of  these  congregations.  The  term  station  is  used 
to  denote  the  places  in  which  foreign  missionaries 
reside,  and  whence  they  carry  on  their  missionary 
work ;  the  out-stations  are  villages,  or  cities  in  which 
native  assistants  of  the  missionaries  labor  as  teachers 
or  preachers. 

The  male  members  of  the  Mission  have  entire  con¬ 
trol  of  the  details  of  all  missionary  operations,  subject 
to  the  review  and  control  of  the  Board  in  America.  By 
a  vote  of  the  male  missionaries  at  stated  meetings  for 
the  purpose,  the  work  of  every  member  is  determined 
or  assigned,  and  particulars  thereof  arranged  so  far  as 
possible.  To  one  may  be  given  the  supervision  of  the 


56 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[hi. 


press,  to  another  work  of  translation,  and  to  another 
the  charge  of  schools.  There  must  of  necessity  be 
great  liberty  of  action  within  these  departments,  ex¬ 
cept  in  matters  requiring  the  outlay  of  funds.  All 
expenses  are  determined  by  the  estimates  made  for 
each  department,  and  cannot  be  exceeded  without 
some  special  provision  being  made. 

The  ladies  having  charge  of  mission  work,  though 
sent  by  Woman’s  Boards  in  America,  are  subject  to' 
the  control  of  the  mission  as  other  members  are.  They 
have  ample  liberty  in  their  own  sphere  of  effort,  and 
their  opinions  and  preferences  are  respected. 

I  remained  in  Oroomiah  until  the  month  of  May, 
my  time  being  occupied  chiefly  with  the  Turkish  as  it 
is  spoken  in  Persia.  I  had  opportunity,  however,  to 
go  to  many  villages  on  the  plain,  and  so  to  see  much 
of  the  people  in  both  city  and  country. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


Departure  from  Oroomiah — Gavalan — Salmas— Alekand — Delamon — 
Construction  of  the  Houses — Decoration — Kalasar — Balakhanah — 
KaraTapa — Sheik  Walle — Course  to  Tabriz — Valley  of  the  Adje  Tchai 
— Distances — Diza  Khalel — Ale  Shah — Position  of  Tabriz — Aras 
Road — Telegraph — H.  B.  M.  Consulate — Tabriz — Atropatene — 
Tavreez  and  Tauris — Tradition  of  Zobaide — Legend  of  the  Cross — 
Armenians — Their  Schools — Church — Number  of  Armenians  in  the 
Western  Diocese — From  Tabriz  to  Vasbinge — Stations  to  Meana — 
Aspect  of  the  Country — Roads  and  Robbers— Punishments — Swift 
Retribution — Turkman  Tchai — Famine — Descent  to  Meana — Valley 
of  the  Meana  Tchai — The  Village  of  Meana — Suffering  from  Famine — 
Ascent  of  the  Koflan  Kuh — Altitude — Description  of  the  Mountain — 
The  Kizil  Uzen — Road  to  Jemalabad — The  Village — Road  to  Zengan 
— Sirtchem — Nikpey — The  Inn — Lutees  and  Amusements — Valley  of 
the  Uzen — Approach  to  Zengan — Mortality  by  Famine  and  Disease 
— Importance  of  Zengan — Resistance  of  the  Babees  in  Zengan. 

I  left  Oroomiah  on  the  twenty-eighth  day  of  May, 
1872,  intending  to  go  to  Tabriz,  Tehran  and  Hamadan, 
and  thence  to  return  to  Oroomiah  by  way  of  the  pro¬ 
vince  of  Ardalan.  The  total  distance  of  the  journey 
is  about  one  thousand  and  sixty-four  miles.  I  had 
been  in  Oroomiah  about  six  months,  and  had  acquired 
some  knowledge  of  the  Persian-Turkish  language.  I 
took  with  me  two  Nestorians ;  one  to  serve  as  cook, 
and  the  other  as  interpreter. 


57 


58 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


The  journey  in  anticipation  did  not  appear  to  be 
free  from  disagreeable  features.  The  famine  had  pre¬ 
vailed  during  the  winter  in  Persia.  The  roads  were 
known  to  be  thronged  with  refugees  who  were  en¬ 
deavouring  to  get  to  Russia  and  Turkey.  Many 
thousands  of  people  had  perished  within  a  few  months 
past.  The  course  of  their  wanderings  was  marked  by 
disease  and  death.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the 
loss  to  Persia  in  the  famine  by  emigration  and  death, 
was  near  three  millions  of  souls.  There  are  no  means 
by  which  the  fact  can  be  determined.  The  prospect 
of  travelling  in  the  heat  of  a  Persian  summer,  lodging 
in  Persian  houses,  and  riding  the  entire  distance  on 
horseback,  was  not  enticing. 

I  rode  from  Oroomiah  to  Gavalan  by  the  route  over 
which  we  came  the  last  year.  The  day  was  rainy  and 
the  road  muddy.  My  protection  from  the  rain  was  a 
rubber  overcoat.  The  men  covered  themselves  with 
goat-skin  coats  called  yapuncha.  One  of  the  men 
carried  an  old  gun  for  show,  and  to  intimidate  the 
evil  disposed,  and  in  his  belt  a  long  Persian  knife. 
I  crossed  the  mountain  which  separates  the  plains 
of  Gavalan  and  Salmas  by  the  pass  called  Alekand. 
The  summit  is  near  six  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  ocean.  In  descending  the  northern  slope,  the 
whole  plain  of  Salmas  lay  in  view.  The  marble  quar¬ 
ries  were  seen  in  the  distance.  The  altitude  of  the 
plain  is  about  four  thousand  two  hundred  feet  above 
the  ocean. 


IV.] 


DEL  A  MOAT. 


59 


My  route  lay  through  the  city  of  Delamon,  the 
principal  town  of  the  plain.  As  I  passed  through  the 
streets  of  this  place,  the  effects  of  the  flood  caused  by 
the  rain  of  the  previous  day  were  plainly  visible.  The 
sudden  accumulation  of  water  from  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  in  the  narrow  channel  of  a  small  creek,  or 
an  overflow  of  the  plains  and  valleys  is  called  by  na¬ 
tives  of  the  country,  a  sale  or  salou.  In  the  course  of 
a  few  moments  the  water  had  gained  a  depth  in  the 
channel  of  ten  and  fifteen  feet.  It  overflowed  the 
bank  of  the  stream,  filled  the  water  courses  and  the 
streets,  and,  in  the  course  of  an  hour  or  two,  caused 
several  acres  of  houses  to  fall  to  the  ground.  Fortu¬ 
nately  the  flood  came  in  the  day  time,  and  the  people 
had  time  to  leave  their  dwellings  before  the  walls  fell. 
In  Delamon  and  the  villages  adjacent,  three  hundred 
houses  were  prostrated,  and  four  men  drowned. 

The  destructiveness  of  such  a  flood  is  due  chiefly 
to  the  lack  of  a  firm,  or  stone  foundation  in  the  build¬ 
ings,  and  to  the  material  of  which  both  the  foundation 
and  the  houses  are  constructed.  The  material  is  sun- 
dried  brick.  The  intense  heat  of  the  sun  soon  dries 
the  freshly  moulded  brick.  The  mortar  is  no  more 
than  mud.  In  the  construction  of  the  ordinary  houses 
of  the  poor,  these  brick  are  laid  in  the  mud  mortar 
upon  the  surface  of  the  ground.  So  long  a  time  as 
the  water  is  kept  off  so  that  it  does  not  stand  near  the 
dwelling,  the  structure  is  firm,  and  in  the  course  of 
years  the  walls  become  very  hard ;  but  when  the  water 


6o 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


flows  for  a  few  moments  against  the  wall,  the  lower 
bricks  dissolve  and  the  superstructure  falls.  The  outer 
surface  of  the  walls  is  covered  with  a  plaster  made  of 
sifted  earth,  and  cut  straw,  which  serves  as  a  protection 
against  rain.  Quite  all  the  houses  of  Persia  are  con¬ 
structed  of  this  material.  The  better  class  of  dwell¬ 
ings  are  built  upon  a  foundation  of  brick,  stone,  or 
water  cement. 

The  roofs  of  the  houses  are  flat,  and  constructed  in 
a  very  simple  manner.  Round  timbers  being  cut  of 
the  poplar  tree,  are  laid  on  the  top  of  the  walls  as 
joist ;  over  these  reeds  are  placed,  and  upon  them  loose 
earth,  to  a  depth  of  three  inches ;  over  this  is  spread 
a  plaster  of  mud  and  cut  straw.  A  slight  inclination 
of  the  roof  or  of  the  plaster  serves  to  turn  the  water 
from  the  roof  to  the  wooden  spouts.  A  smooth 
dressed  stone  is  used  as  a  roller,  by  which  the  plaster 
is  pressed  and  made  compact,  as  occasion  may  require. 
Cut  straw,  the  chaff  of  rice,  and  salt,  are  often  strewn 
upon  the  roof  to  make  the  cement  more  impervious  to 
the  rain.  The  best  houses  are  made  of  burned  brick, 
and  set  upon  deep  foundations  of  stone  or  burned  brick. 
The  walls  of  the  interior  are  plastered  with  two  coats 
of  brown  mortar  composed  of  mud  mixed  with  straw ; 
over  this,  when  dry,  a  white  cement  of  gypsum  is 
spread. 

While  the  huts  of  the  peasants  are  dark  and  miser¬ 
able,  the  dwellings  of  the  rich  are  often  much  decorated, 
and  many  of  the  rooms  are  light  and  beautiful.  The 


IV] 


DELAMON— HOUSE  DECORATIONS. 


61 


walls  of  the  best  houses  are  ornamented  within,  in  an 
elaborate  manner,  with  stucco  and  mirror  glass.  The 
glass  is  cut  in  small  pieces  and  stuck  upon  the  cement 
in  many  designs,  so  that  the  ceiling  and  wall  sparkle 
in  the  light  as  if  set  with  diamonds.  Wall  paper  is 
used  with  good  effect,  and  very  expensive  patterns  are 
sometimes  imported.  The  guest  room  is  usually  pro¬ 
vided  with  large  and  elaborately  made  windows.  The 
entire  side  of  a  room  may  be  a  window  made  with 
several  sections.  The  sash  is  often  made  with  very 
small  panes  and  set  with  stained  glass.  As  I  rode 
away  from  Delamon  I  noticed  fine  and  large  dressed 
stones  in  some  of  the  foundations;  these  had  been 
brought  from  some  old  structure. 

Riding  several  miles  to  the  east  of  Delamon,  I 
halted,  near  sunset,  at  the  gate  of  an  Armenian  house, 
the  home  of  Badal.  He  is  said  to  be  the  richest  man 
in  the  town  of  Kalasar.  He  came  to  the  gate  and 
offered  me  his  house  and  all  that  it  contained.  It  was 
in  the  form  and  condition  of  the  houses  of  well-to-do 
Persians.  The  rooms  occupied  three  sides  of  the 
court,  and  the  stable  commanded  the  fourth.  Badal 
had  been  in  Constantinople  and  in  Russia,  and  was 
acquainted  somewhat  with  the  customs  of  Euro¬ 
peans  ;  he  deviated,  therefore,  from  Oriental  ways  so 
much  as  to  introduce  his  wife  and  daughters.  They 
came  forward  with  much  diffidence,  and  with  their 
mouths  tied  up  in  white  handkerchiefs,  the  signs  of 
silence  and  submission.  Two  sons,  very  neat  and 


62 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


pretty  boys  of  ten  and  twelve  years,  passed  a  part  of 
the  evening  in  my  room.  The  balakhanah  or  high 
room,  that  is,  the  chamber,  was  placed  at  my  service. 
To  this  room  some  very  pretty  Persian  rugs  were  car¬ 
ried,  and  I  followed  them,  being  glad  to  rest  after  a 
very  long  and  tedious  ride  from  Gavalan.  Badal 
passed  a  good  part  of  the  evening  in  conversation 
with  us,  and  offered  us  food  and  wine. 

Leaving  Kalasar  at  the  earliest  dawn,  we  rode 
toward  the  east,  the  road  passing  the  northern  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  Shahe  Sea,  and  between  it  and  a  rugged 
range  of  mountains.  In  about  three  hours’  time  we 
came  to  a  hut  used  as  a  custom-house.  All  merchan¬ 
dise  entering  the  country  is  subject  to  a  tax  of  five 
per  cent.  Evidence  being  furnished  of  the  payment 
of  this  duty,  no  other  tax  can  be  lawfully  collected. 
Every  city,  however,  levies  a  tax  on  all  produce  and 
merchandise  brought  into  the  city  for  sale.  In  some 
instances  a  tax  is  put  upon  all  goods  entering  a  prov¬ 
ince,  and  on  all  merchandise  passing  through  the 
gates  of  a  city.  This  tax  is  for  the  benefit  of  the 
province  or  town  through  which  the  goods  are  con¬ 
veyed. 

I  passed  the  northern  end  of  the  lake  and  lodged  in 
the  village  of  Kara  Tapa  or  Black  Hill,  so  named 
from  the  appearance  of  a  mound  near  the  village.  On 
the  next  day  after  passing  Sheik  Walle,  we  made  our 
manzil  in  Diza  Khalel.  This  village  is  six  farasangs 
from  Sheik  Walle.  Between  Diza  Khalel  and  Kara 


IV.] 


DIZA  KHALEL—ALE  SHAH— TABRIZ. 


63 


.Tapa,  the  road  gradually  diverges  from  the  shore  of 
the  lake,  and  follows  the  valley  of  the  Mian  and  Adje 
Tchai,  to  Tabriz.  It  runs  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  valley,  during  near  one-half  of  the  stage,  and 
beyond  Ale  Shah  to  near  the  centre  of  the  valley. 
Thence  there  are  two.roads ;  one  crosses  the  river  at 
Mian ;  the  other  runs  up  the  valley  to  the  bridge,  and 
there  unites  with  the  road  from  the  Aras  just  without 
the  city  of  Tabriz.  This  city  is  thirty  or  forty  miles 
from  Lake  Oroomiah.  It  might  seem  a  matter  of  sur¬ 
prise  that  so  long  a  journey  should  be  necessary  to 
reach  Tabriz  from  Oroomiah  ;  for  the  distance  is  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  miles.  The  distance  across 
the  lake  must  be  much  less;  but  there  are  no  boats 
suitable  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers,  and  a  cara¬ 
van  of  horses  or  wagons  would  be  necessary  from  the 
lake  to  the  city. 

Diza  Khalel  is  a  fair  Persian  village  of  about  one 
thousand  houses.  Remaining  here  over  night,  we 
started  in  the  morning  early,  intending  to  ride  to  Tabriz. 
After  a  ride  of  about  eight  miles,  we  passed  the  miser¬ 
able  village  of  Ale  Shah.  The  road  from  this  place  to 
Mian,  is  very  dreary,  being  over  an  alkaline  plain, 
utterly  destitute  of  verdure.  The  river  flows  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  valley,  and  is  crossed  at  Mian. 

The  position  of  Tabriz  is  plainly  seen  by  one  cross¬ 
ing  the  plain.  The  mountain-ridge  on  the  south  side 
of  the  valley  curves  to  the  north,  some  twenty-five 
miles  from  Ale  Shah,  and  ten  miles  from  Mian.  The 


64 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


ridge  has  a  gradual  slope  to  the  west  and  northwest, 
as  it  makes  the  curve.  The  city  is  situated  at  the  foot 
of  this  declivity.  I  came  upon  the  Aras  road  near  the 
bridge  over  the  Adje  Tchai.  The  telegraph  line  of  the 
Indo-European  Company  is  upon  this  road.  The  iron 
posts  and  the  lines  of  wire  appeared  as  old  friends,  and 
seemed  to  dispel  somewhat  of  the  dreary  aspect  of  the 
plain  and  the  barren,  parched  mountains.  Such  is 
Persia;  from  a  treeless  and  desert  plain,  we  enter  a 
city  of  many  thousands  of  people. 

By  the  courtesy  of  H.  B.  M.’s  consul,  Captain  Jones, 
I  was  furnished  with  apartments  at  the  consulate.  The 
consul  had  but  recently  recovered  from  typhoid  fever, 
contracted,  as  he  believed,  from  the  contagion  of  a 
crowd  of  refugees  from  famine,  who  were  permitted 
to  assemble  in  the  court  of  the  consulate  to  receive 
the  funds  given  by  the  consul.  The  consulate  is  a  fair 
building  of  one  story,  constructed  on  three  sides  of 
a  spacious  court,  in  which  was  a  prolific  growth  of 
flowers.  Conspicuous  among  these  were  red  and 
yellow  roses.  The  large  double  roses  were  the  finest 
I  have  seen  in  Persia ;  but  they  were,  I  believe,  im¬ 
ported.  The  altitude  of  the  consulate  is  very  nearly 
that  of  the  mission  premises  in  Oroomiah. 

Tabriz  was,  in  1872,  considered  the  most  populous 
city  in  the  kingdom.  It  is  claimed,  however,  that 
Tehran  is  now  equally  large,  if  not  larger.  The  usual 
estimate  of  the  population  places  the  number  at  two 
hundred  thousand.  About  five  hundred  families  are 


IV.] 


TABRIZ —  TRADITIONS . 


65 


Armenian,  and  there  are  a  few  Europeans.  There  is 
a  British,  a  French,  and  a  Russian  consulate.  The 
firm  of  Zeigler,  of  Manchester,  is  here  represented  by 
a  general  agent.  There  are  sub-agents  of  the  firm  in 
other  cities  of  Persia.  The  principal  business  of  this 
firm  is  the  importation  of  English  and  European 
goods.  The  people  of  Tabriz,  excepting  the  Euro¬ 
peans  and  the  Armenians,  are  Mohammedans,  and,  for 
the  most  part,  are  of  the  Afshar  stock.  The  city  has 
been  much  larger  and  more  populous  than  it  now  is. 

Persian  writers  ascribe  great  antiquity  to  the  cities 
which  have  occupied  the  site  of  Tabriz.  It  is  claimed 
by  some  persons  that  this  was  the  capital  of  Atro- 
patene,  and  continued  to  be  such  to  the  time  of  Strabo. 
There  is  no  good  evidence  that  the  capital  of  Armenia 
was  ever  located  here.  It  seems  to  be  probable  that 
the  capital  of  the  satrapy  known  as  Atropatene  was 
not  at  this  point,  but  in  or  near  what  is  now  called 
Meana. 

Armenian  writers  say  that  Husrove 1  gained  a  vic¬ 
tory  here  over  the  king  of  Persia,  and  in  a. d.  253 
built  a  city  which  he  called  Davreez,  whence  some 
have  derived  the  name  Tavreez,  Tareez,  and  Tabreez. 
Tabriz  is  a  corruption  of  the  name  Tauris,  by  which 
it  is  yet  known  to  the  Europeans  as  anciently  to  the 
Romans. 

No  credit  is  to  be  given  to  the  tradition  which 
attributes  the  founding  of  the  city  to  Zobaide,  the 


5 


1  Of  Armenia. 


66 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


wife  of  Haroun  al  Rasheed.  She  made  extensive 
repairs,  and  is  said  to  have  named  the  place  Tabreez, 
or  fever  dispersing,  in  consequence  of  her  recovery 
here  from  protracted  fever. 

Armenians  say  that  Khosroes,  on  his  return  from 
Jerusalem,  brought  the  true  cross  to  Tabriz,  and 
buried  it  under  the  fortress  situated  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  city. 

This  city  appears  to  have  been  most  prosperous  under 
the  rule  of  the  Moguls.  At  one  time  the  revenue  from 
imports  amounted  to  over  three  hundred  thousand 
tomans,1  or  about  six  hundred  thousand  dollars,  and 
forty  thousand  tomans  were  collected  as  the  city  tax. 
The  city  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  a.  d.  244, 
and  was  soon  thereafter  rebuilt.  It  was  overthrown  a 
second  time  on  the  fourteenth  of  the  month  Sefir  A.  h. 
434.  Credulous  Persians  attribute  the  preservation 
of  the  place  since  the  latter  date,  to  the  construction 
of  many  connaughts  or  water  courses,  through  which, 
they  say,  the  once  confined  and  destructive  gases 
escape. 

In  former  times  the  city  contained  five  hundred 
thousand  souls,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  mosques ; 
this  was  in  the  reign  of  the  Moguls.  The  more 
famous  mosques  were  those  called  Ale  Shah  and 
Jahan  Shah. 

One  Persian  writer  says  that  the  people  of  Tabriz 
are  much  given  to  wolf-dancing  as  a  sport,  and  that  a 
1  The  toman  equals  about  two  dollars. 


IV.] 


TABRIZ— CUSTOMS. 


67 


wolf  which  could  dance  well  has  been  known  to  bring 
as  much  as  five  hundred  tomans. 

The  custom  prevails  of  giving  fanciful  or  poetical 
names  to  the  cities.  Tehran  is  called  Dar  al  Khala- 
fat,  or  Door  of  Royalty.  Tabriz  is  called  Kobal 
Islam,  or  the  Dome  of  Islam,  and  is  so  named  in 
honour  of  the  fanatical  zeal  of  its  Mohammedan  in¬ 
habitants. 

The  heir  apparent,  called  Valeahd,  is  required  to 
reside  in  Tabriz  until  the  death  of  the  reigning  king. 
There  are  no  natural  advantages  to  create  a  large  city 
here,  except  that  this  is  a  point  at  which  there  is  a 
union  of  the  lines  of  commerce  to  Turkey  and 
Georgia.  In  former  years  quite  all  the  trade  of  north¬ 
ern  Persia  was  by  way  of  Turkey.  The  imports  are 
now  largely  from  Russia. 

The  Armenians  of  Tabriz  are  merchants  and  arti¬ 
sans.  The  bishop  and  archbishop  for  the  western 
diocese  reside  here.  They  maintain  two  schools. 
That  for  boys  had  about  one  hundred  pupils  in  three 
departments.  A  private  school  for  girls  was  kept  in 
another  part  of  the  town.  The  studies  were  primary. 
The  principal  Armenian  church  presented  the  usual 
dismal  aspect  of  Eastern  or  Persian  churches.  The 
walls  were  adorned  with  paintings,  some  of  which 
were  brought  from  Vienna.  The  bishop  stated  the 
number  of  Armenians  in  the  diocese  to  be  three 
thousand  households,  an  estimate  which  gives  at  least 
fifteen  thousand  souls.  These  people  live  in  the  plains 


68 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


of  Salmas  and  Oroomiah,  and  in  the  cities  of  Tabriz, 
Oroomiah,  and  Maragha. 

I  left  Tabriz  on  the  7th  of  June,  and  rode  in 
three  hours  to  the  village  of  Vasbinge.  The  road 
makes  a  continuous  ascent  to  this  place,  and  rises  to 
an  altitude  of  five  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean.  From  the  summit  there  is  an 
extended  view  of  the  country.  On  the  west,  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Adje  Tchai,  Lake  Oroomiah,  and 
the  mountains  of  Kurdistan ;  and  on  the  south  the 
Sahund  mountains,  now  apparently  very  near,  yet  no 
less  than  thirty  or  forty  miles  distant. 

Between  Tabriz  and  Meana,  there  are  four  chapar 
khanahs,  and  the  distance  is  twenty-four  farasangs.1 
I  made  the  journey  in  three  stages,  namely,  to  Vas¬ 
binge,  Hajah  Agah,  and  Turkoman  Tchai.  In  the 
greater  part  of  this  route  the  country  is  very  high, 
having  an  altitude  of  from  five  to  six  thousand  feet 
above  the  Atlantic  ocean.  Much  of  the  land  was 
under  cultivation  in  former  years,  but  very  little  of  it 
appeared  to  have  been  tilled  within  the  last  two  years, 
owing  to  drought  and  famine.  The  altitude  of  this 
region  is  such  that  artificial  irrigation  is  unnecessary. 
Land  in  these  high  positions  is  called  dame,  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  it  from  those  tracts  which  require  to  be  irri¬ 
gated,  in  order  to  the  production  of  a  harvest. 

1  The  farasang  or  parsang  is  a  Persian  measure  of  distance,  and  equal 
to  near  four  English  miles. 


IV.] 


THE  KARA  DAG  MOUNTAIN. 


69 


Three  farasangs  east  of  Vasbinge  is  a  high  and 
narrow  ridge.  The  summit  is  near  seven  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea  level.  It  is  the  highest  point  between 
Tabriz  and  Tehran.  There  was  no  snow  upon  this 
mountain;  but  Sahund  was  covered  with  a  mantle  of 
white  far  down  its  sides ;  a  fact  which  served  to  indi¬ 
cate  the  height  of  that  mountain. 

The  Russian  border  is  about  eighty  miles  distant 
from  this  the  principal  caravan  route  of  Northern 
Persia.  The  Kara  Dag  mountains  and  regions  of 
Ardabil  appear  to  be  a  rendezvous  for  banditti,  who 
infest  the  roads  in  Georgia  and  northern  Azarbijan  in 
turn,  as  they  find  most  expedient.  Near  Hajah  Agah 
the  road  is  crossed  by  another  from  Ardabil,  over 
which  the  robbers  make  their  raids. 

One  of  my  travelling  companions  told  me  that  some 
years  ago,  as  he  was  passing  this  place,  he  saw  the 
skeletons  of  several  robbers  who  had  been  seized  and 
put  to  death.  A  small  round  tank  of  brick  had  been 
constructed,  as  high  as  to  a  man’s  chin.  The  con¬ 
demned  man  was  then  put  into  the  tank,  and  newly 
mixed  plaster  of  Paris  poured  in,  until  the  tank  was 
full.  The  man  was  thus  suffocated,  and  permanently 
fixed  as  a  warning  to  other  highwaymen.  Sometimes 
the  condemned  one  is  placed  with  the  head  down  in 
a  tank,  or  in  a  hole  excavated  for  the  purpose,  and 
the  liquid  plaster  is  poured  in  until  the  body  is 
firmly  fixed ;  the  feet  and  ankles  are  left  to  protrude. 
Such  are  some  of  the  Persian  methods  of  punishment. 


70 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


Notwithstanding  the  severity  with  which  theft  and 
robbery  are  punished,  yet  there  are  clans  which  follow 
the  business.  It  was  related  to  me  at  another  time, 
that  a  chief  of  one  of  the  Loree  clans  entered  an 
Armenian  village,  at  the  head  of  several  horsemen,  at 
night,  being  exasperated  at  the  refusal  of  the  people  to 
comply  with  his  demands,  and  at  the  words  spoken 
by  some  of  the  people.  They  took  the  priest  and 
some  of  the  principal  men  of  the  village,  and  tied 
them  one  by  one  in  a  sack  with  a  large  dog,  and  then 
beat  the  dog  until  in  his  rage  he  killed  the  man  tied 
up  with  him.  The  Persian  governor,  hearing  of  the 
affair,  adopted  an  expedient  to  arrest  the  guilty  par¬ 
ties,  by  which  he  avoided  a  battle  with  the  clan.  He 
made  a  hunting  excursion  into  the  territory  of  the 
tribe.  Etiquette  required  that  the  chief  should  visit 
the  prince.  He  was  sumptuously  entertained  in  the 
pavilion  of  the  governor,  his  followers  being  without. 
When  his  suspicions  had  been  dispelled,  in  a  moment 
an  iron  band  was  slipped  about  his  neck  and  chains 
put  upon  his  feet,  and  he  was  thrown  alive  into  one 
of  the  furnaces  with  which  the  baths  are  heated. 

Turkman  Tchai  is  an  insignificant  village,  noted  for 
the  treaty  concluded  here  between  the  commissioners 
of  Russia  and  Persia,  and  for  its  horse  traders.  We 
had  been  in  the  town  but  a  few  moments  when  several 
natives  appeared  mounted  upon  sleek  and  fat  horses 
which  the  riders  desired  to  sell.  My  men  had  been 
told,  and  they  firmly  believed,  that  these  traders  had  a 


IV.] 


VILLAGE  OF  ME  ANA. 


71 


knack  of  inflating  the  horses,  so  that  very  lean  animals 
could  be  made  to  appear  fat  in  the  course  of  a  few 
moments.  Four  miles  beyond  Turkman  Tchai,  we 
passed  the  ruins  of  a  village  which  a  few  months  pre¬ 
vious  contained  one  hundred  families.  It  was  now 
reduced  by  the  famine  to  fifteen  households.  Men, 
women  and  children  were  met  in  the  way  slowly  trav¬ 
elling  westward.  Many  sat  by  the  way  eating  herbs 
and  roots  which  they  had  dug  up. 

From  this  place  there  is  a  descent  to  Mcana,  and 
the  country  is  more  broken  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river 
called  Meana  Tchai.  The  road  comes  near  this  stream 
about  ten  miles  distant  from  the  village  of  Meana.  The 
road  follows  in  part  the  river  bottom  and  in  part  the 
mountain  side. .  At  Meana  the  valley  is  spacious,  the 
town  being  in  the  vicinity  of  several  streams,  the 
largest  of  which  is  the  Kizil  Uzen.  In  the  northeast, 
at  a  distance,  the  Elburz  range  is  very  distinct  and  bold, 
having  a  course  toward  the  south.  The  town  of 
Meana  is  a  miserable  collection  of  about  one  thousand 
hovels,  and  the  valley  is  here  not  more  than  three 
thousand  four  hundred  feet  above  the  ocean  level. 
This  is  a  great  depression  from  the  average  altitude 
of  the  country  adjacent  to  the  village.  The  valley  is 
fertile  and  dotted  with  villages.  The  river  bed  is 
wide,  and  at  a  point  some  two  miles  below  the  village 
is  spanned  by  a  long  brick  bridge.  Rice  and  cotton 
grow  in  the  valley,  and  the  wheat  was  now  being  har¬ 
vested. 


72 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


Meana  has  been  thought  by  some  persons  to  occupy 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Atropatene.  It  might  be  said 
that  the  nearness  of  the  location  to  the  boundary  of 
that  province,  seems  to  be  opposed  to  the  supposition. 
The  Koflan  Kuh  appears  to  have  been  the  boundary 
of  that  province  as  it  is  now  of  Azarbijan,  and  this 
mountain  is  not  more  than  five  miles  distant  from 
Meana.  This  village  was  filled  during  the  winter  with 
refugees  from  the  famine,  many  of  whom  perished. 
I  was  told  that  the  dead  lay  in  the  streets,  and  were 
eaten  by  the  dogs.  The  place  is  now,  as  in  time  past, 
noted  for  the  poisonous  bugs  which  infest  the  houses. 
The  Persians  believe  that  the  bite  of  this  insect  called 
the  mallah  is  attended  with  fever  and  irritation,  and 
often  proves  fatal.  It  is  proved,  I  believe,  that  the  bite 
produces  disagreeable  effects.  Europeans  on  entering 
the  town  are  careful  to  obtain  new  rooms  where  they 
may  be  free  from  this  annoyance. 

After  crossing  the  bridge,  we  began  the  ascent  of 
the  mountain  Koflan  Kuh,  passing  up  a  valley  to  the 
foot  of  the  pass.  The  latter  part  of  the  way  to  the 
summit  is  very  precipitous.  There  is  a  rough  stone 
pavement  six  paces  wide  on  either  side  of  the  higher 
part  of  the  pass.  The  altitude  of  the  highest  point  of 
the  road,  is  four  thousand  six  hundred  feet.  The 
descent  on  the  east  is  down  a  long  and  gradual  slope 
to  the  Kizil  Uzen  river.  The  term  Koflan  Kuh  is 
said  to  mean  the  lock  mountain  or  the  key.  It  is 
given  to  a  chain  of  mountains  running  from  this  point 


IV.] 


THE  KOFLAN  KUH  MOUNTAIN. 


73 


southward  to  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  Through 
this  ridge  the  Uzen  flows  by  a  very  narrow  chasm. 
On  either  side  there  are  precipitous  cliffs  and  high 
mountains.  The  Uzen  River  separates  the  Koflan  Kuh 
from  the  southern  range  of  the  Elburz. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  pass,  and  near  the  verge 
of  the  chasm,  there  is  an  old  fortress  of  rude  con¬ 
struction,  which  may  have  been  occupied  by  guards 
stationed  here  many  years  since ;  but  legend  refers  the 
structure  to  a  robber  chief. 

As  we  passed  the  summit  and  began  the  descent  on 
the  east,  we  came  upon  three  men  who  were  holding  a  - 
fourth,  and  taking  from  him  whatever  he  possessed. 
The  man  seemed  to  be  delighted  at  our  timely  arrival, 
and  at  once  claimed  to  belong  to  our  party.  No  one 
would  suppose  that  a  person  of  such  forlorn  aspect 
would  be  molested  for  anything  that  he  might  be  sup¬ 
posed  to  possess ;  but  it  is  well  known  by  the  foot¬ 
pads  of  the  country,  that  the  appearance  of  poverty 
often  conceals  treasures.  Very  little  value  is  attached 
to  life,  and  the  clothing  a  man  has  on,  or  some  article 
thereof,  may  be  sufficient  incentive  to  the  commission 
of  crime. 

The  Kizil  Uzen  is  the  chief  river  of  Northern 
Persia.  It  rises  in  the  highland  northwest  of  Hama- 
dan.  It  flows  northeasterly  to  the  Koflan  Kuh  pass, 
thence  descends  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  passing  two 
ranees  of  the  Elburz.  A  brick  bridge  of  three  ai  ches 
spans  the  Uzen  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  At  this 


74 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


season  the  stream  was  not  fordable.  The  width  of  the 
channel  was  not  more  than  one  hundred  feet. 

The  road  from  the  bridge  to  Jemalabad  follows  in 
part  the  valley  of  the  Uzen  and  crosses  a  dreary, 
broken  country.  The  altitude  of  the  valley  at  the 
bridge  is  three  thousand  four  hundred  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  ocean.  Jemalabad  contains  an  old 
caravansary,  a  telegraph  station  of  the  Indo-European 
Company,  and  a  few  huts  occupied  by  very  poor  Per¬ 
sians.  From  this  point  the  road  follows  the  valley  of 
the  Uzen  to  Sirtchem,  a  distance  of  three  farasangs. 
Thence  to  Zengan  and  Sultaneah,  it  ascends  the  valley 
of  the  Zengan  Tchai.  The  principal  stations  are  Sirt¬ 
chem,  Nikpey,  and  Zengan,  and  the  distance  is  about 
twenty-three  farasangs. 

Sirtchem  is  a  cluster  of  miserable  hovels  in  which 
caravans  find  rest  and  shelter  for  a  night.  The  forty 
families,  inhabitants  of  this  village,  have  been  reduced 
to  twenty  by  the  famine. 

Nikpey  contains  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  houses. 
A  very  large  caravansary,  of  burned  brick,  stands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  town.  About  fifty  persons,  refugees 
from  Hamadan,  died  here  of  the  famine. 

As  there  seemed  to  be  little  or  no  choice  in  the 
place  of  entertainments  afforded  by  the  town,  we 
followed  the  first  candidate  for  guests,  and  found 
that  we  had  secured  the  best  the  village  had  to  offer. 
A  seat  was  provided  in  the  gateway,  and  a  young 
Mussulman  woman  brought  a  new  Persian  rug,  and 


IV.] 


VALLE  Y  OF  THE  UZEN. 


75 


put  it  on  the  earthen  dalan.  My  room  was  thus  put 
in  order. 

While  I  was  resting  in  the  gateway,  three  men  came 
to  the  door :  One  began  to  sing ;  another  played  a 
stringed  instrument  called  a  tar  ;  another  beat  a  tam¬ 
bourine.  One  of  the  company  juggled.  His  perform¬ 
ances  were  many  and  dexterously  done.  He  put  a 
string  through  his  tongue,  stuck  an  egg  on  each  ear 
as  an  ear-ring.  Taking  a  bow  with  two  taut  strings, 
he  put  a  ball  upon  the  strings,  and  by  a  dexterous 
motion  of  the  bow,  caused  the  balls  to  roll  to  the  top 
when  the  bow  was  held  nearly  perpendicular. 

These  men  are  called  Lutees,  a  term  which  some 
persons  have  said  is  derived  from  the  name  of  Lot,  but 
which  comes  from  a  word  meaning  pleasure.  They 
are  a  disreputable  class,  but  are  the  manufacturers  of 
amusements  for  the  people,  and  furnish  the  dancers 
and  musicians.  It  is  a  remarkable  feature  in  the  life 
of  these  Orientals  that  they  have  no  public  amuse¬ 
ments.  I  know  of  no  class  of  persons  who  make  it  a 
business  to  furnish  amusement  to  the  people  except 
the  Lutees.  The  resources  of  these  professionals  seem 
to  be  exhausted  when  they  have  played  the  tar,  sung, 
danced,  performed  a  little  jugglery,  and  exhibited  a 

monkey  or  a  decrepid  lion. 

The  valley  of  the  Uzen  and  of  the  Zengan  Tchai  is 
quite  wholly  without  cultivation,  and  a  most  desolate 
region.  From  Sirtchem  to  Nikpey,  a  distance  of  thirty 
miles,  there  was  neither  house  nor  tilled  field.  A  few 


76 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IV. 


tents  inhabited  by  Elyots,  and  midway  of  the  stage 
were  the  only  human  habitations. 

Late  in  the  afternoon  we  rode  about  two  farasangs 
to  the  village  of  Zanje  where  we  remained  for  the 
night.  In  the  morning  early  we  started  for  Zengan, 
said  to  be  four  farasangs  distant.  On  approaching  the 
outskirts  of  the  city  we  passed  an  extensive  graveyard. 
Near  by  was  a  hut  through  which  a  rill  of  water  flowed. 
This  is  the  house  for  the  baptism  of  the  dead.  A  num¬ 
ber  of  naked  corpses  were  lying  on  the  ground  with¬ 
out  the  house.  I  know  not  how  many  may  have  been 
within  the  wash-room.  As  we  rode  through  the  city 
gate  we  met  two  men  bearing  on  their  shoulders  a  very 
rude  bier  in  which  was  the  blackened  corpse  of  one 
who  had  died  of  famine. 

While  in  this  city  I  learned  that  the  reports  of  the 
prevalence  of  the  famine  and  typus  fever  here  were,  in 
the  main,  true.  At  this  time  the  number  of  deaths  daily 
was  sixty.  The  population  of  the  city  was  said  to  be 
about  forty  thousand,  an  estimate  which  I  judge  to  be 
very  large.  The  famine  had  been  very  severe  during 
the  winter.  At  first  only  refugees  from  other  places 
died  from  this  cause,  but  later  many  of  the  citizens 
died.  In  the  nine  months  preceding,  five  thousand 
six  hundred  and  thirty  dead  bodies  were  carried  out 
of  one  gate  for  burial,  and  one  thousand  one  hundred 
in  the  last  forty-six  days.  In  the  same  period  of  nine 
months  there  had  been  borne  through  another  city 
gate  five  thousand  dead  bodies.  It  was  thought  that 


IV.] 


I 


ZENGA N—ITS  IMPORTANCE. 


77 


the  water  had  become  polluted,  since  some  of  the 
water  courses  passed  near  or  under  the  cemeteries. 

The  city  of  Zengan  is  an  old  town,  and  was  once 
more  prosperous  and  important  than  now.  It  has  not 
regained  the  position  of  power  which  it  possessed 
before  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Moguls. 
The  celebrated  sheik,  Abal  Abas,  who  died  A.  h.  557 
was  buried  here.  Zengan  is  one  of  the  most  import¬ 
ant  cities  of  the  second  class.  It  is  near  midway  be¬ 
tween  Tabriz  and  Tehran.  In  late  years  it  has  been 
noted  for  the  power  acquired  here  by  the  Babees.  In 
1850  the  chief  mullah  of  Zengan,  Mohammed  Ale, 
having  embraced  the  tenets  of  the  Bab,  drew  to  him¬ 
self  a  large  number  of  adherents  and  took  possession 
of  the  city.  Troops  were  sent  from  Tehran,  and  in 
time  the  Babees  were  driven  to  the  southeastern  quar¬ 
ter  of  the  town.  Here  they  constructed  defences  and 
held  the  position  during  a  year. 

It  is  related  of  the  Babees  that  they  were  fanatical 
and  cruel,  and  that  they  tortured  all  prisoners  taken  by 
them.  A  Persian  writer  says  that  some  of  their  cap¬ 
tives  were  shod  as  horses ;  others  were  suspended 
from  beams  by  one  arm,  and  others  were  burned  to 
death.  The  Babee  women  engaged  in  the  defence, 
sharing  the  danger  with  their  husbands  and  brothers. 
When  their  leader  Ale  was  slain,  his  followers  became 
discouraged ;  their  defences  were  taken,  and  all  the 
surviving  Babees,  men,  women  and  children,  were 
massacred. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Zengan  to  Sultaneah— Palace  of  Fattah  Ale  Shah— Founding  of  Sulta- 
neah— Principal  Structures— Mausoleum  of  Mullah  Hassan  Kashe— 
Altitude  and  Position  of  Sultaneah— Route  to  Casveen — Horumda- 
rah — Famine — Abhar,  its  Location  and  History — Unreasonable  Iden¬ 
tification  with  Habor — Valley  and  Villages  of  the  Kemah  Rud _ Sea- 

dum — Tat — Road  to  Casveen — Wells  and  Connaughts — Perils  of 

Travel  Situation  of  Casveen — Gardens  and  Productions — History _ 

Population — Routes  to  Tehran — Departure  from  Casveen — Night 
Marches  Anxiety  of  the  Persians  and  Imaginary  Dangers — Haunts 
of  the  Assassins — The  Story  of  Hassan — The  Name  Assassin — The 
Kurdish  Warrior— An  Episode— Kishlak  to  Tehran— Coal  Mines— 
[  Karaj— The  River  and  Village— Water  Course  to  Tehran— Road  from 
Karaj  to  Tehran — Approach  to  Tehran — Position  of  the  City _ Posi¬ 

tion  of  Raghes  and  Ra — Entrance  to  Tehran — Situation — Rise  to 
Importance — Changes  in  the  City  and  its  Improvement — Gates — Des¬ 
ert  and  Aspect  of  the  Environs— Heat  and  Reptiles. 

Sultaneah  is  six  farasangs  eastward  of  Zengan.  The 
road  follows  the  valley  of  the  Zengan  Tchai.  The  val¬ 
ley  is  here  much  narrower,  and  decreases  in  width  to 
the  summit.  It  is,  however,  very  spacious,  and  the 
ascent  is  very  gradual.  It  is  formed  by  two  ranges  of 
the  Elburz,  though  the  southern  range  at  its  eastern 
extremity,  seems  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  system  of 
mountains  in  Northern  Azarbijan,  and  to  be  connected 
with  the  Sahund. 

78 


v.] 


ZENGAN  TO  SUL  TANEAH. 


79 


The  road  is  fairly  passable  for  wagons ;  the  chief 
obstructions  being  the  small  stones  which  have  accu¬ 
mulated  in  the  way.  Carriages  and  wagons  are  driven 
over  quite  all  the  way  from  Tehran  to  Tabriz,  following 
the  track  of  the  caravans ;  for  no  effort  has  been  made 
to  construct  a  wagon-road,  except  from  Casveen  to  the 
capital.  There  are  portions  of  the  way  which  are 
wellnigh  impassable  for  wheeled  vehicles.  The  upper 
part  of  the  valley  abounds  in  springs  of  water,  and 
verdure.  The  land  is  fertile,  but  the  extreme  cold  of 
the  winter  at  this  altitude  of  six  thousand  feet  prevents 
Persians  from  living  here  in  any  large  numbers.  There 
are  but  few  villages  in  the  valley,  and  it  appears  to  be 
used  chiefly  for  grazing  flocks  and  herds. 

The  dome  of  the  mausoleum  of  Sultan  Khodaband, 
was  visible  at  a  distance  of  near  twelve  miles.  On 
approaching  the  place,  the  palace  of  Nasir  id  Deen 
Shah  was  a  conspicuous  object.  The  keeper  of  the 
palace  permitted  us  to  occupy  rooms  in  the  principal 
building.  The  palace  is  built  on  an  artificial  mound 
covering  several  acres,  the  top  of  which  is  thirty  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  adjacent  plain.  There  is  a 
gradual  descent  to  the  north.  Persian  history  relates 
that  the  completion  of  Sultaneah  and  the  importance 
of  the  city  were  due  to  Khodaband,  of  the  line  of 
Tchengis  Khan.  Before  the  reign  of  this  prince  there 
was  a  village  at  this  place  called  Kunkure.  Sultan 
Khodaband  caused  some  building  to  be  done  in  further¬ 
ance  of  the  plans  of  his  father,  Argun  Khan,  grandson  of 


8o 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


Huluku  Khan.  The  real  founder  of  the  city  was  the 
Christian  prince  Argun.  He  died  before  the  com¬ 
pletion  of  the  work.  The  succession  fell  to  Khoda- 
band.  This  prince  continued  the  work  of  construc¬ 
tion  on  a  large  scale.  He  ordered  a  citadel  to  be 
erected  of  hewn  stone.  Many  architects,  painters,  and 
skillful  workmen  were  employed.  The  labourers  began 
to  work  every  morning  at  sunrise,  and  laboured  until 
midday,  when  they  ceased  to  work,  and  the  money  for 
the  day’s  toil  was  paid  to  them. 

The  principal  structures  were  a  citadel,  a  palace,  a 
school,  and  a  mausoleum.  The  citadel  had  its  walls 
of  such  a  width  on  the  top  that  four  horsemen  could 
ride  abreast  on  it.  It  was  four-square,  every  side  hav¬ 
ing  a  length  of  five  hundred  gaz.  It  possessed  one 
gate  and  sixteen  towers.  The  Sultan  and  princes  had 
palaces  within  this  structure. 

Khodaband  built  for  himself  a  tomb,  a  mosque,  a 
palace,  and  gardens.  The  palace  possessed  a  porch 
resembling  that  of  the  Kesra  near  Karbalah ;  and  a 
dewan  khanah,  in  the  court  of  which  two  thousand 
people  could  assemble.  The  king  erected  an  asylum, 
called  the  Court  of  Grace.  Persian  historians  say 
that  Hajah  Rasheed  al  Hak  va  Deen,  a  physician,  built 
a  palace  which  contained  a  school  and  hospital  which 
had  many  pupils  and  teachers.  Khodaband  constructed 
a  wall  also,  and  the  city  was  completed  about  A.  h. 
704. 

The  palace  now  standing  is  said  to  have  been 


V.] 


PALACE  OF  FATTAH  ALE  SHAIL 


8 1 


erected  by  Fattah  Ale  Shah,  and  it  is  believed  to  stand 
on  the  site  of  the  one  built  by  Khodaband.  The  mound 
on  which  this  building  is  situated  is  an  accumulation 
of  the  former  structures.  In  the  course  of  centuries 
the  sun-dried  brick  have  crumbled  and  left  the  hill 
upon  which  the  reigning  Shah  has  his  palace. 

There  are  few  or  no  objects  of  interest  in  the  build¬ 
ing.  The  dewan  khanah,  a  reception-room,  has  on 
its  walls  ten  life-size  portraits  of  the  ten  sons  of  Fattah 
Ale  Shah.  The  end  of  this  hall  is  adorned  with  a 
large  painting  covering  the  whole  wall.  It  represents 
a  hunting  excursion  by  the  Shah.  The  king  is  the 
central  figure  of  the  picture.  He  is  in  the  act  of 
spearing  a  gazelle.  From  this  room  there  is  a  long 
arched  corridor,  which  ascends  for  a  long  distance  to  a 
flight  of  six  steps,  by  which  ascent  is  made  to  a  pave¬ 
ment.  From  this  point  there  is  another  stairway  and 
corridor  to  the  door  of  the  king’s  private  chamber. 
The  tower  near  the  centre  contained  the  king’s  sleep¬ 
ing  apartment.  The  whole  palace  is  going  to  ruin. 
It  is  said  that  the  Shah  Nasir  id  Been  has  made  no 
visit  to  this  place  in  a  period  of  nine  years.  The  bath 
is  a  short  distance  from  the  principal  enclosure.  It 
contains  some  beautiful  enameled  tiles.  I  suppose  the 
bath  was  formerly  connected  by  proper  passages  with 
the  main  palace. 

The  mausoleum  called  that  of  Khodaband  is  by  far 
the  most  conspicuous  and  interesting  object  in  Suita- 

neah.  It  is  said  to  be  in  a  better  state  of  preservation 
6 


82 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


than  any  other  structure  of  the  same  age  in  Persia. 
It  is  located  about  one  mile  and  a  half  southeast  of 
the  palace.  A  great  part  of  the  original  building  has 
disappeared.  That  which  now  stands  is  the  main 
rotunda  and  a  transept ;  over  each  of  these  there  is  a 
dome  of  burned  brick.  The  entire  building  was  of 
this  material,  except  the  stone  used  in  the  foundation 
and  in  ornamentation.  That  which  I  call  a  rotunda,  is 
a  high  tower,  the  octagonal  walls  of  which  support  the 
dome.  The  top  of  the  dome  must  be  near  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  forty  feet  from  the  ground.  The  rains  of 
many  centuries  have  worn  deep  ditches  and  gashes  in 
the  brick  dome,  revealing  tiers  of  brick  of  which  it  is 
formed.  Here  and  there  within  the  walls  are  patches 
of  gilding  and  enameled  tiling  showing  the  former 
finish  of  the  interior.  There  is  evidence  that  there 
was  originally  a  structure  at  each  side  of  the  octagon, 
which  may  be  called  a  transept,  except  at  the  portal. 
The  front  has  a  face  of  dressed  stone  and  alabaster, 
and  the  cornice  is  of  alabaster,  much  of  which  yet 
remains  in  place. 

Whatever  pertained  to  this  mosque  other  than  I 
have  described,  has  been  either  pulled  down  or  has 
fallen  of  its  own  weight.  The  hovels  of  the  villagers 
near  by  contain  red  brick,  which,  evidently,  have  been 
pulled  out  of  the  mosque. 

While  passing  to  the  transept,  the  native  guide 
called  our  attention  to  a  place  where  the  floor  of  earth 
had  been  broken  up  and  fresh  earth  filled  in.  He  said 


V-] 


MA  US  OLEUM  A  T  SUL  TANEAH. 


83 


that  a  passage  had  been  opened  to  the  vault  beneath 
for  the  purpose  of  putting  into  the  vault  the  dead 
bodies  of  persons  who  had  died  of  famine  in  the  win¬ 
ter  of  1871-2.  There  were  graves  of  little  children 
in  the  earthen  floor  of  the  transept  The  refugees  from 
other  districts  of  the  country  resorted  to  the  mauso¬ 
leum  for  protection  from  cold  and  snow.  Here  in  this 
fireless  and  dreary  place  they  lay  down  to  die.  The 
depth  of  the  snow  at  this  altitude,  the  frozen  ground, 
and  the  apathy  of  the  people,  prevented  the  usual  inter¬ 
ment  in  the  graveyards,  and  the  dead  carcasses  of  hu¬ 
man  beings  to  the  number  of  five  hundred  were  thrown 
into  the  transept,  until,  as  it  was  said,  the  condition  of 
the  ground  should  permit  interment  in  the  field.  As 
spring  returned  and  the  refugees  had  disappeared,  the 
passage  had  been  filled  up  again. 

A  short  distance  southwest  of  the  mausoleum, 
there  is  the  fragment  of  a  heavy  stone  wall  which 
I  take  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  stone  wall  of  the 
citadel,  described  above  as  built  in  the  founding  of 
the  city. 

Khodaband  was  the  first  sovereign  of  Persia  to  pro¬ 
claim  the  Sheah  faith  as  the  national  religion,  excepting 
the  Ismaelites  who  ruled  from  Almood.  He  is  said  to 
be  the  first  to  proclaim  the  Sheah  faith,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  he  caused  the  Friday  service  in  the  mosques 
to  be  opened  by  the  calling  of  the  names  of  the  twelve 
Imams.  It  is  believed  that  Khodaband  intended  to 
remove  the  remains  of  Ale  from  Najaf,  and  of  Hosein 


84 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


from  Karbalah  to  Sultaneah.  There  does  not,  how¬ 
ever,  appear  to  be  any  real  evidence  for  this  opinion. 

The  tomb  of  Mullah  Hassan  Kashee  is  about  half 
a  mile  south  of  the  village.  The  gate  of  this  mauso¬ 
leum  was  open  and  the  place  has  no  custodian.  The 
dome  is  covered  with  green  tiles,  and  the  whole  struc¬ 
ture  is  insignificant  in  its  contrast  with  the  mausoleum 
of  the  kings.  The  court  was  filled  with  rose  bushes, 
and  the  blossoms  presented  a  curious  mixture  of 
red  and  yellow  tints.  The  top  of  the  flower  leaves 
was  of  one  colour,  and  the  under  surface  of  another 
colour.  The  towers  and  domes  of  other  Imam  Zadahs 
were  to  be  seen  at  a  distance  west  of  the  shrine  of 
Hassan. 

Sultaneah  is  on  the  water  shed  of  the  Zengan  Tchai 
flowing  west,  and  the  Kemah  Rud  flowing  east.  The 
altitude  is  six  thousand  feet.  The  valley  to  the  east 
has  a  continuous  descent  to  the  desert  of  Khorasan, 
into  which  it  carries  the  waters  of  the  southern  face  of 
the  Elburz,  as  far  east  as  Shah  Abd  al  Azeem ;  or  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty  miles. 

On  leaving  this  abode  of  the  former  Sultans,  we 
followed  the  course  of  the  valley,  to  the  village  of 
Horumdarah,  and  thence  by  a  circuitous  route  to 
Seadum,  and  Casveen.  *  The  chapar  road  to  the  second 
named  place  is  shorter  by  three  farasangs.  The  lower 
and  longer  road  is  passable  for  carriages  as  the  other 
two  routes  to  Casveen  are  not.  A  shorter  road  is  that 
which  diverges  from  the  chapar  route  near  Hasar,  and 


V.] 


HOR  UMD A  RAH— FAMINE. 


85 


Sain  Kalah,  and  crosses  the  mountains  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  valley  by  way  of  Kilishkin. 

Near  Sain  Kalah  we  passed  a  herd  of  about  fifteen 
hundred  camels,  and  a  caravan  of  two  hundred  horses. 
The  loads  borne  by  these  animals  were  stacked  near 
the  roadside,  and  consisted  of  wheat  en  route  from 
Khoy  to  Tehran.  Further  on  in  the  stage,  we  passed 
a  herd  of  six  hundred  horses,  the  property  of  the 
Shah.  These  animals  were  being  driven  to  the 
plains  of  Sultaneah  to  graze.  This  fact  explained 
the  anxiety  of  the  natives  of  that  village  to  mow  the 
grass. 

Horumdarah  is  a  village  of  one  thousand  houses,  or 
about  five  thousand  souls.  It  is  seven  farasangs  dis¬ 
tant  from  Sultaneah.  The  plain  adjacent  to  the  village 
is  well  under  cultivation.  It  was  reported  that  two 
hundred  people  died  here  of  the  famine.  The  fact 
seemed  to  be  authenticated  by  the  authorities  that 
human  flesh  had  been  eaten  by  the  famishing.  One 
man  had  been  executed  for  this  offense.  He  confessed 
to  having  killed  one  person  for  the  purpose  of  devour¬ 
ing  the  flesh,  preferring  the  flesh  of  the  slain  to  such  as 
had  .died  of  disease  or  from  hunger. 

In  the  next  stage  of  nine  farasangs  to  Seadum  we 
passed  the  village  of  Abhar.  It  is  about  four  miles 
east  of  Horumdarah,  on  the  banks  of  the  Kemah  Rud. 
The  stream  has  here  a  somewhat  deep  valley.  I  think 
the  village  must  be  near  two  miles  from  the  caravan 
road.  The  extensive  gardens  and  abundance  of  fruit 


86 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[V- 


and  other  trees  gave  a  verdant  and  refreshing  aspect 
to  the  situation  of  the  village. 

Some  travellers  as  respectable  as  Sir  K.  Porter  have 
jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  this  village  occupies  the 
site,  and  retains  the  name  of  the  Habor  to  which  the 
captive  Israelites  were  transported  by  Shalmaneser. 
The  theory  is  that  the  Uzen  is  the  Gozen  of  scripture 
and  Abhar  is  Habor.  The  theory  has  I  believe  been 
long  time  exploded.  Persian  history  seems  to  be  ad-" 
verse  to  the  conjecture,  for  it  tells  us  that  the  ancient 
city  was  built  by  Darius  who  was  defeated  by  Alex¬ 
ander  the  Great.  Persian  writers  say  that  a  citadel 
was  constructed  here  by  Darius  which  is  called  Dara. 
Sultan  Haidar  built  a  fortress  in  the  place  and  named 
it  Haidareyah. 

There  are  many  villages  along  the  banks  of  the 
Kemah.  The  mountain  range  on  the  north  terminates 
near  and  west  of  Seadum,  and  the  valley  is  here 
widened  to  the  main  range  of  the  Elburz.  Seadum  is 
a  miserable  village  of  a  thousand  houses,  and  an  alti¬ 
tude  above  the  ocean  of  four  thousand  feet.  Extensive 
gardens  lie  on  the  south  of  the  town.  The  people  of 
this  and  some  other  villages  in  this  vicinity  speak  a 
jargon  which  they  call  Tat.  It  is  said  to  be  a  mixture 
of  Kurdish  and  Persian.  The  contribution  of  Seadum 
to  the  famine  was  two  hundred  dead. 

The  road  hence  crosses  the  plain  in  a  northeasterly 
direction  to  Casveen,  a  distance  of  five  farasangs.  The 
greater  part  of  the  way  is  through  a  country  which  is 


V.] 


ROAD  TO  CAS  VEEN. 


87 


utterly  destitute  of  verdure.  The  surface  of  the  plain 
is  much  broken  and  cut  with  small  mounds  of  earth 
which  have  been  thrown  up  where  wells  have  been 
dug,  and  therefore  indicate  the  course  of  connaughts. 
These  wells  are  in  most  places  uncovered,  and  are 
sometimes  in  the  road.  Beasts  of  burden  and  men 
are  in  danger  of  falling  into  them  when  travelling  at 
night.  As  we  approached  Casveen  on  a  subsequent 
journey  to  this,  the  chapar  shagird  pointed  out  a  well 
by  the  roadside  into  which  he  said  three  of  his  horses 
had  once  plunged. 

An  English  gentleman  was  once  riding  chapar  by 
night  in  another  part  of  the  country.  The  shagird 
rode  on  in  advance  a  few  yards ;  in  a  certain  place  he 
observed  that  the  English  gentleman  was  not  to  be 
seen  or  heard ;  he  therefore  returned  to  a  well  which 
was  open  in  the  road,  and  found  that  both  horse  and 
rider  had  fallen  into  it ;  fortunately  the  horse  had 
fallen  first  and  lay  beneath  his  rider.  The  man  was 
obliged  to  remain  in  this  position  until  the  post  boy 
could  obtain  assistance  from  a  village  some  distance 
from  the  highway.  Both  horse  and  rider  were  extri¬ 
cated,  and  suffered  no  serious  harm,  although  the  fall 
was  not  less  than  twenty-five  feet 

Casveen  is  situated  in  a  level  part  of  the  plain, 
which  seems  to  have  here  a  width  of  not  less  than 
thirty  miles.  The  nearest  mountains  of  Elburz  may  be 
six  or  eight  miles  distant  on  the  north.  A  small 
stream  rises  east  of  the  town,  and  flowing  west  is  lost 


88- 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


in  the  plain.  Extensive  gardens  are  cultivated  in  the 
environs  of  the  city;  the  principal  productions  are  very 
fine  grapes  for  which  the  place  is  noted.  Persian 
writers  attribute  very  great  antiquity  to  the  first  city 
built  here.  Some  of  them  claim  that  the  city  was 
founded  by  Shahpoor,  son  of  Ardashir.  Others  say 
that  Shahpoor  Zulaktoff  constructed  the  city  after  his 
escape  from  imprisonment  by  the  Roman  emperor. 
The  era  assigned  by  them  to  this  event  is  four  hundred 
and  forty-one  years  before  Mohammed.  Some  refer 
the  city  to  Bairom.  There  was  an  important  town 
here  at  the  time  of  the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  the. 
country,  and  it  figures  in  all  the  subsequent  history  of 
Persia. 

The  name  Casveen  is  said  by  some  writers  to  be  of 
more  recent  origin  than  the  founding  of  the  first  city. 
A  battle  was  fought  in  this  place  between  one  of  the 
Akossara  and  Dailamites.  When  the  former  put  the 
battle  in  order  a  part  of  his  forces  were  defeated,  which 
he  described  to  his  aids  as  a  Keshveen,  by  saying 
that  an  army  makes  keshveen,  or  wrong,  to  be  right. 
On  gaining  the  battle  he  built  a  city  and  called  it 
Kashveen,  whence  we  have  the  name  Casveen. 

Haroun  al  Rasheed  is  said  to  have  restored  the  city 
in  his  time.  The  mosque  and  wall  begun  by  him 
were  completed  by  the  vizier  of  Arslan  the  Suljuk. 
In  the  decline  of  the  Mogul  power  there  was  no 
remnant  of  the  wall  to  be  found.  The  city  has  now  a 
population  estimated  at  thirty  thousand  souls.  All  the 


V.] 


SITUATION  OF  CAS  VEEN. 


89 


inhabitants  are  Mohammedans,  except  about  a  dozen 
Armenians.  The  city  owes  its  importance  to  the  plain 
adjacent,  and  especially  to  the  fact  that  this  is  the  point 
of  union  of  the  caravan  route  to  Rasht,  and  that  which 
runs  from  east  to  west  along  the  base  of  the  Elburz 
range.  The  governor’s  palace  occupies  extensive 
grounds  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  town.  A  broad 
avenue  leads  to  the  palace  gateway. 

Here,  as  in  quite  all  Persian  towns,  the  public  reser¬ 
voirs  of  water  are  curious  and  conspicuous  structures. 
The  body  of  water  lies  below  the  surface  of  the  ground 
in  a  brick  cistern.  A  long  flight  of  steps  descends  to 
a  facet  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  cistern.  Hence 
the  water  is  borne  in  jugs  and  leathern  bags  by  the 
people.  The  front  of  the  reservoir  is  usually  a  smooth 
square  wall  some  thirty  feet  high,  covered  with  glazed 
tiles  in  several  colours.  Each  corner  of  the  front  is 
surmounted  by  a  minaret  finished  with  the  same  style 
of  brick  work.  The  streets  of  Casveen  are  for  the 
most  part  narrow  and  filthy.  Some  of  the  caravansa¬ 
ries  and  bazaars  are  fair  structures  of  their  kind. 

This  town  suffered  sorely  from  the  famine.  The 
bazaars  and  streets  were  full  of  famishing  people. 
Women  and  children  were  seen  in  the  streets  break¬ 
ing  the  bones  of  dead  animals  to  obtain  the  marrow 
in  them.  A  large  number  of  houses  were  deserted 
and  unroofed.  This  desolation  was  brought  about  by 
the  people  being  compelled  to  sell  everything  they 
possessed  to  obtain  food.  At  first  they  sold  their  car- 


90 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


pets,  ornaments  and  household  stuff.  When  the  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  the  sale  of  these  articles  were  consumed,  the 
people  pulled  out  the  doors  and  wood-work  of  their 
houses,  which  they  sold  for  whatever  they  could  obtain. 
Then  the  roofs  were  broken  up  for  the  timber  in  them. 
The  houses  thus  unroofed  fell  to  ruins.  The  people 
fled,  to  die  on  the  way  to  some  more  favoured  region. 
At  this  time  the  severity  of  the  famine  had  passed, 
yet  there  were  reported  thirty  deaths  daily  from  this 
cause  alone. 

As  I  passed  on  foot  through  the  streets,  the  poor 
people  gathered  in  crowds  about  me  calling  for  alms 
and  help.  The  more  they  cried  out  so  much  the  more 
the  crowd  increased.  It  began  to  be  a  serious  question 
how  I  should  get  clear  of  the  annoyance  and  possible 
danger.  I  thought  of  the  expedient  of  sowing  a  lot 
of  copper  coins.  This  had  the  desired  effect.  While 
the  people  were  intent  on  picking  up  the  coins,  I 
succeeded  in  getting  out  of  their  sight. 

Casveen  is  twenty-four  farasangs  west  of  Tehran ; 
thirty  farasangs  from  Rasht,  and  four  or  five  days’ 
journey  from  Hamadan.  The  distance  to  Tehran 
may  be  called  one  hundred  miles.  Thq  principal  road 
is  that  called  the  Chapar  route.  There  were  two 
roads,  one  following  the  valley,  the  other  keeping 
close  to  the  mountains.  The  plain  is  level  and  but 
little  cultivated.  The  usual  stations  made  by  caravans 
were  Aleabad,  Kishlak,  Sefir  Hojah,  Meanjub,  and 
Tehran.  The  new  wagon-road  has  now  changed  the 


v.] 


DEPARTURE  FROM  CAS  VEEN. 


9i 


stations.  Four  chapar  khanahs  divide  the  stages  into 
six,  of  four  farasangs  each.  Very  good  post  houses 
have  been  erected,  obviating  the  necessity  of  lodging 
in  the  villages.  But  in  1872,  the  post-road  had  not 
been  thought  of,  and  the  usual  route  was  over  the 
level  plain. 

We  left  Casveen  near  sunset,  intending  to  ride  three 
farasangs  to  Aleabad ;  but,  as  the  village  is  off  the  road 
a  short  distance,  we  did  not  see  it,  and  so  passed  on 
to  Kishlak.  In  this  stage  we  pass  within  four  or  five 
farasangs  of  the  famous  mountain  called  Almood, 
noted  as  the  stronghold  of  Hassan  Saba,  the  chief 
of  the  Ismaelite  sect  commonly  called  the  Assassins. 

On  the  following  evening  we  started  with  the  twi¬ 
light  and  the  rising  moon,  intending  to  go  to  Sefir 
Hojah,  a  distance  of  six  farasangs.  After  we  had  rid¬ 
den  a  few  miles,  the  road  appeared  to  take  a  course 
toward  the  mountains.  The  two  Persians  now  began 
to  protest  against  travelling  at  night ;  they  argued 
that  being  a  stranger  in  the  country,  I  could  not  ap¬ 
preciate  the  dangers  of  the  situation.  The  people  of 
the  country,  they  said,  were  desperate  characters,  and 
the  mountains  were  infested  with  robbers  who  could 
easily  come  down  upon  us  here,  and  rob  and  kill  as 
they  might  choose,  without  any  possible  chance  of 
escape  for  us,  or  of  detection  of  the  robbers  by  our 
friends.  The  men  had  evidently  heard  some  legend 
of  the  bands  of  Hassan,  whose  rendezvous  was  now 


so  near. 


92 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


The  fortress  of  Almood  has  long  since  gone  to 
ruin.  The  devastations  of  six  and  a  half  centuries 
since  the  last  of  the  Assassins  have  obliterated  all 
traces  of  these  fanatics,  except  such  as  are  left  in  the 
rocks  of  the  mountain-peak,  and  the  structures  erected 
upon  it.  But  in  the  imagination  of  the  simple-minded 
natives,  the  spirit  .of  the  Assassins  seems  to  frequent 
their  ancient  haunts  in  the  shadows  of  these  cliffs. 

The  story  of  Hassan,  though  one  with  which  the  stu¬ 
dent  of  history  is  very  familiar,  and  though  it  present  a 
revolting  phase  of  human  nature,  is,  nevertheless,  one 
of  thrilling  interest,  and  takes  on  some  new  and  curious 
features  as  we  read  it  from  the  pages  of  the  Persian 
writers. 

Hassan,  the  son  of  Saba,  was  born  near  the  city  of 
Tus,  in  Khorasan.  When  a  youth  he  went  to  Nisha- 
poor,  and  studied  in  the  school  of  Imam  Mayafak,  an 
eminent  teacher  of  the  Ismaelite  sect  of  the  Aleites. 
The  youth  here  gained  the  reputation  of  being  a  re¬ 
cluse.  He  formed  a  close  friendship  with  two  other 
young  men,  whose  career  became  intimately  connected 
with  his  own.  At  this  time,  Arslan,  of  the  Suljuk 
dynasty,  ruled  in  Persia.  The  three  youths  bound 
themselves  with  an  oath  that  they  would  make  one  of 
their  number  Grand  Vizier,  under  the  compact  that  he, 
on  rising  to  power,  should  assist  the  other  two  com¬ 
panions,  and  make  them  equal  to  himself.  One  be¬ 
came  vizier ;  he  relates  of  the  other  two,  that  Omar 
Hayoon  came  to  him,  and  referred  to  the  obligation 


v.] 


THE  STOR  Y  OF  HASSAN. 


93 


assumed.  He  refused  to  take  an  office  in  the  govern¬ 
ment,  preferring  a  gift  of  a  few  hundred  tomans.  Hav¬ 
ing  received  the  money  he  retired  to  Nishapoor  and 
devoted  his  life  to  the  study  of  mathematics,  in  which 
pursuit  he  became  distinguished. 

Hassan,  says  the  same  authority,  also  came  to  the 
vizier.  The  latter  introduced  him  to  the  king,  by 
whom  he  was  promoted ;  but  having  formed  a  plot  to 
supplant  the%  vizier,  he  came  under  the  displeasure  of 
the  court.  He  went  to  Ra  and  thence  to  Ispahan.  Here 
he  endeavoured  to  bring  the  governor  into  alliance  with 
himself.  He  is  reported  to  have  said :  “  If  I  can  find 
two  faithful  adherents  I  can  overthrow  the  Turkish 
rule  in  Persia.”  His  proposals  resulted  in  a  loss  of  the 
friendship  of  the  governor,  and  he  retired  to  Egypt. 
He  was  received  with  distinguished  favour  by  the  Kha- 
lafah  of  the  Ismaelites ;  but  being  involved  in  the  con¬ 
troversies  about  the  succession,  he  returned  to  Persia, 
where,  after  leading  an  unsettled  life,  he  came  to  the 
city  of  Damgan.  He  remained  here  three  years, 
preaching  the  tenets  of  the  Ismaelites,  and  making 
many  proselytes,  with  whom  he  retired  to  the  village 
and  mountain  of  Almood.  Being  pursued  by  the 
forces  of  the  vizier  he  fled ;  but,  in  a  short  time  there¬ 
after,  got  possession  of  the  fortress  by  stratagem.  He 
succeeded  in  getting  the  place  full  of  his  own  men  under 
the  disguise  of  refugees.  Hassan  was  drawn  up  by 
his  comrades  to  the  fortress  at  night  His  entrance 
to  the  citadel  forms  an  era,  and  took  place  a.  h.  483. 


94 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


Several  military  expeditions  sent  against  Hassan 
were  unsuccessful,  and  fell  into  his  hands,  more 
through  the  blunders  of  their  generals,  than  because 
of  any  strength  in  the  chief  of  the  Ismaelites.  Having 
got  possession  of  Almood,  Hassan  soon  became  mas¬ 
ter  of  other  fortresses  in  the  mountains  contiguous  to 
him.  When  sorely  pressed  by  the  forces  of  the  king, 
he  was  relieved  by  three  hundred  men  of  Casveen, 
who  joined  his  little  army  at  night.  Hassan  became 
famous  especially  on  account  of  the  completely  organ¬ 
ized  system  of  assassination  which  he  devised,  and  his 
successors  perpetuated.  It  is  claimed  by  some  persons 
that  the  word  assassin1  came  from  his  name.  He 
possessed  a  band  of  men  called  the  “  Devoted  Ones  ”  ; 
they  were  bound  by  an  oath,  and  carried  a  dagger 
concealed  under  the  outer  coat.  The  first  assassination 
ordered  by  the  founder  of  the  sect  was  the  companion 
of  his  schooldays,  the  vizier  of  Arslan.  The  king  him¬ 
self,  on  awaking  one  morning,  found  a  dagger  stuck  in 
the  floor  at  the  head  of  his  divan,  with  a  letter  attached 
to  it,  from  Hassan,  warning  him  against  attempting  any 
further  opposition  to  the  Ismaelites.  This  Shiek  al 
Yebel,  as  he  was  called,  retained  his  power  by  intrigue, 
and  by  letting  his  bands  to  be  allies  of  contending  fac¬ 
tions  and  princes.  The  members  of  the  devoted  band 
went  everywhere,  throughout  Persia,  Syria,  and  Egypt. 

1  Webster  says  it  is  derived  from  h’ashesh,  the  intoxicating  drink  used 
by  the  Assassins.  This,  I  believe  to  be  an  error,  and  that,  as  the  Assas¬ 
sins  were  called  by  natives  Hassaneen,  the  word  sprang  from  that  use. 


v.] 


THE  KURDISH  WARRIOR. 


95 


Yet  their  chief  remained  a  recluse  and  saint  in  the 
citadel  on  Almood,  and  during  a  period  of  thirty-five 
years  did  not  leave  the  fortress.  His  hermit  life  con¬ 
tributed  to  the  mystery  which  invested  his  name  and 
person,  and  was  one  cause  of  the  influence  which  he 
exerted  over  the  minds  of  the  people. 

On  the  approach  of  death,  Hassan  appointed  Kaon* 
Bouk  Omeed,  or  the  Great  Hope,  to  be  his  successor, 
and  expired  on  the  25th  of  the  month  Rabe  al  Akher 
A.  h.  518.  His  successors  held  their  stronghold  for  a 
period  of  near  one  hundred  and  thirty  years,  and  until 
they  were  extirpated,  and  their  citadel  destroyed  by 
Huluku  Khan  a.  d.  1253. 

The  anxiety  of  my  men  grew  more  intense  as  the 
moon  descended  and  seemed  about  to  leave  us  in  dark¬ 
ness.  On  my  asking  if  they  were  afraid,  the  answer 
was  no,  so  long  a  time  as  no  one  appears.  They  led 
the  way  a  few  paces.  The  clattering  of  horses  feet  was 
now  heard,  and  in  the  dim  misty  moonlight  we  could 
discern  the  outline  of  horsemen  in  front.  Then  one  of 
them  came  toward  us  at  full  run,  and  wheeling  off  to 
our  right  a  few  paces  poised  his  lance  and  stood  still  a 
moment.  He  carried  a  shield,  and  the  belt  about  his 
waist  was  set  with  pistols,  revolvers  and  knives.  It 
was  evident  that  he  was  a  Kurd.  I  looked  for  my 
men,  and  perceived  that  they  had  both  fallen  to  the 
rear.  The  Kurd  shouted,  and  was  answered  by  his 
companion  in  front,  and  a  European,  a  member  of  one 
of  the  Legations  in  Tehran,  rode  by.  The  Kurd  was 


96  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [v. 

an  escort  of  the  European.  He  had  made  a  dash  for¬ 
ward  to  ascertain  whether  we  were  marauders  or  peace¬ 
ful  travellers,  while  his  charge  remained  at  a  safe  dis¬ 
tance.  The  drooping  courage  of  my  men  revived, 
and  the  ludicrous  issue  of  this  affair  seemed  to  dispel 
any  fear  which  remained.  The  episode  occupied  their 
thoughts  for  some  time,  and  the  first  faint  ray  of  dawn 
touched  the  eastern  horizon  before  their  thoughts 
reverted  to  the  mountains  and  the  robber  bands. 

From  Kishlak  to  Karaj  there  is  no  village  or  object 
of  special  interest  on  the  upper  road.  About  two 
farasangs  north  of  Kishlak  there  are  mines  of  coal. 
All  the  mountain  from  near  Casveen  to  the  Karaj 
River  seems  to  contain  bituminous  coal  of  good 
quality.  It  is  conveyed  to  Tehran  in  sacks  on  the 
backs  of  camels,  and  is  pretty  well  pulverized  in  the 
transportation.  It  is  sold  in  the  city  at  about  two 
tomans  per  kharwar,  or  near  four  dollars  for  seven 
hundred  pounds.  The  mines  in  this  ridge,  and  one 
near  Damavand  are,  I  believe,  the  only  mines  of  coal 
now  opened  in  the  kingdom. 

Karaj  is  the  name  of  a  small  river  which  issues  from 
the  Elburz  mountains.  It  flows  south  and  east,  and  is 
lost  in  the  border  of  the  desert  of  Khorasan.  The 
highway  crosses  the  river  by  a  brick  bridge.  It  is 
near  eight  farasangs  from  Kishlak  to  the  river.  A 
small  village  bearing  the  name  of  this  stream  is  situated 
near  the  bridge  and  on  the  western  side  of  the  river. 
The  conspicuous  objects  in  the  village  are  an  imposing 


V.]  KA RAJ—  THE  RIVER  AND  VILLAGE.  97 

gateway,  and  a  palace  of  the  Shah,  out  of  which  the 
high  tower  of  the  king’s  chamber  rises  as  at  Sultaneah 
and  in  other  palaces.  At  a  short  distance  north  of  the 
bridge  the  river  issues  from  a  deep  glen  in  a  rippling 
and  foaming  torrent.  The  stream  was  now  swollen  by 
the  rains  and  melting  snows  of  spring.  This  place  is 
the  site  of  a  town  called  Sulemaneah.  It  is  much 
better  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  a  large  city  than 
is  the  site  of  the  capital. 

The  Karaj  River  alone  would  seem  to  be  an  advan¬ 
tage  outweighing  all  other  considerations ;  but  other 
things  than  a  supply  of  water  seem  to  have  fixed  the 
site  of  the  capital  cities  in  this  region,  for  the  great 
cities  of  past  time  which  have  flourished  in  this  valley, 
have  been  located  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  miles  east¬ 
ward  of  this  point.  It  was  attempted  to  construct  a 
canal  from  the  Karaj  to  Tehran,  but  the  engineers  did 
not  succeed  in  getting  the  water  so  high  as  the  site  of 
Tehran. 

Remaining  in  this  village  until  twilight  we  then  rode 
to  the  chapar  khanah,  called  Meanjub,  a  name  which 
means  among  the  water  courses.  Hence  to  Tehran  the 
distance  is  four  farasangs,  which  I  accomplished  on 
the  next  morning.  The  road  from  Karaj  makes  a  wide 
detour  around  the  bold  mountain  which  here  projects 
into  the  plain.  From  Meanjub  the  road  follows  a 
gradual  ascent  of  the  plain  for  a  distance  of  two  fara¬ 
sangs,  thence  to  the  city  there  is  a  continuous  though 
very  gradual  descent 
7 


98 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


There  is  nothing  here  in  the  way  of  public  improve¬ 
ments  to  remind  one  of  his  approach  to  the  capital  of 
the  “  King  of  Kings.”  F rom  the  eastern  slope,  the  city 
is  visible  in  dim  outline.  Dull  brown  roofs  and  walls, 
with  here  and  there  a  minar  and  dome,  were  the 
prominent  features  presented  to  view.  All  archi¬ 
tecture  sinks  into  insignificance  in  contrast  with  the 
high  mountains  which  stand  in  a  semicircle  about  the 
city.  On  the  left  mount  Shimron  rises  to  the  height 
of  near  twelve  thousand  feet1  above  the  surface  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  eight  thousand  five  hundred  feet 
above  the  city.  On  the  northeast  the  mountain  ridge 
which  separates  the  waters  of  the  Jorje  Rud  from  the 
plain  of  Tehran,  and  east  of  and  towering  above  this 
the  smooth,  white  cone  of  Damavand  rising  to  a  height 
of  near  nineteen  thousand  feet  above  the  ocean ;  on 
the  east  and  southeast  a  cluster  of  less  elevated  mount¬ 
ains  extending  into  the  plain,  and  terminating  near  the 
village  of  Shah  Abd  al  Azeem,  and  the  site  of  the  once 
famous  city  of  Ra. 

In  all  historic  ages  there  has  been  a  great  city  at  or 
near  this  point.  It  is  believed  that  Raghes  was  situ¬ 
ated  either  on  the  site  occupied  by  Ra,  or  was  about 
five  farasangs  further  east.  It  was  a  populous  city  and 
cotemporary  with  Babylon  and  Nineveh  in  the  most 
prosperous  era  of  those  kingdoms,  and  contained  a 
million  and  a  half  of  people.  The  Mohammedans  in 
their  conquest  of  the  county  found  Ra  a  populous  city. 

1  Eleven  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  feet. 


V.] 


TEHRAN— SURROUNDINGS. 


99 


It  continued  to  be  the  chief  city  of  Northern  Persia 
during  the  dynasties  of  the  Khalafahs.  It  was  taken 
by  the  moguls  and  its  inhabitants  slaughtered  or  dis¬ 
persed.  The  ruins  of  this  city  are  about  six  miles 
southeastward  of  Tehran.  The  mounds  and  fragments 
of  the  old  wall  are  yet  plainly  visible.  The  circuit  as 
traced  by  these  remains,  must  have  been  an  extended 
one.  The  ruins  of  the  structures  cover  a  broad  tract 
of  land  now  under  the  plough,  and  in  part  occupied 
by  the  village  of  Shah  Abd  al  Azeem.  The  tower  of 
Yezed  is  yet  standing.  It  is  of  burned  brick,  and  was 
the  mausoleum  of  a  governor  of  that  name.  The 
construction  is  Saracenic.  Some  distance  east  of  this 
there  is  a  broken  tower  of  stone,  and  a  vault  on  the 
mountain  side. 

The  broken  brick  and  fragments  of  pottery  are 
scattered  over  a  wide  area.  I  have  here  noted 
what  I  observed  in  years  subsequent  to  my  arrival 
in  Tehran. 

I  entered  the  city  by  the  gate  No  or  New,  and  rode 
through  the  bazaars  to  the  northern  side  of  the  town, 
and  the  quarter  occupied  by  Europeans. 

Tehran  is  situated  on  the  southern  slope  of  Shimron, 
and  at  the  foot  of  that  mountain.  It  has  an  altitude 
of  three  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
is  in  latitude  35 0  40'.  It  was  an  insignificant  village 
until  the  rise  of  the  Kajar  dynasty  of  Shahs.  The 
first  of  the  Kajars,  Agah  Mohammed  assumed  the 
title  of  Shah  in  1796.  But  the  town  had  been  occu- 


IOO 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[v. 


pied  by  him  for  more  than  ten  years  previous  to  this 
date,  and  before  the  fall  of  the  Zand  dynasty.  The  city 
has  been  described  by  travellers  as  contracted  and  un¬ 
healthful.  This  was  true  of  the  old  city.  But  within 
five  years  previous  to  the  date  of  my  visit,  the  old 
walls  had  been  in  good  part  torn  down,  the  moat  filled 
up,  and  a  large  area  about  the  entire  city  had  been 
enclosed  by  a  ditch  and  earthworks.  The  space  in¬ 
cluded  has  been  divided  by  wide  streets,  and  the  sup¬ 
ply  of  water  has  been  increased  by  the  construction  of 
connaughts.  These  changes,  with  the  growth  of  shade 
trees,  the  opening  of  parks  and  gardens,  have  had  a 
favourable  effect  upon  the  climate,  and  have  reduced 
the  average  temperature  of  the  summer  by  several 
degrees.  Tehran  is  now1  the  most  cleanly  and 
healthful  city  in  Persia.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
moat  which  gives  to  the  place  the  form  of  an  oc¬ 
tagon."  It  has  twelve  gates,  three  on  each  side. 
These  are  surmounted  with  small  minarets,  and  the 
outer  surface  is  covered  with  mosaic  work  of  glazed 
tiles. 

All  without  the  wall  is  barren.  As  far  as  the  eye 
can  see  there  is  a  broad  and  treeless  plain,  except  here 
and  there  a  small  cluster  of  trees  as  oases  in  the  desert. 
Such  is  the  aspect  of  the  entire  circuit  of  the  adjacent 
plains  and  mountains.  To  the  southeast  the  desert 
of  Khorasan  is  bounded  by  the  horizon  only.  The 
sky  is  cloudless  continuously  during  near  six  months 

1 1884. 


V.] 


TEHRAN— HEAT  AND  REPTILES. 


IOI 


of  the  year.  The  usual  temperature  of  the  summer 
in  the  ordinary  dwellings  of  the  natives  is  90°  to  ioo° 
Fahrenheit.  Scorpions,  tarantulas,  centipedes  and  poi¬ 
sonous  serpents  infest  the  heated  plain,  and  frequent 
the  old  walls  and  dwellings  of  the  city. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Principal  structures  of  Tehran — Streets  and  Gates — Palace  of  the  Sun — 
War  Department — King’s  College — King’s  Treasury — King’s  Stables 
— Gardens — Gulishan — Lala  Zar  or  Garden  of  Tulips — Tob  Maidon 
or  Place  of  the  Cannon — Mosques  of  Tehran — Names  of  Precincts — 
The  Bazaars — Soldiers — Water — Public  Baths — British  Legation — 
Quarters  of  the  Armenians  and  Jews — Poie  Kopak  the  Place  of  Ex¬ 
ecution — Palaces  of  the  Shah  on  Shimron — Population  of  Tehran — 
Different  Races — Origin  of  Jewish  Colony — The  Armenians — Graves 
of  Europeans — Guebers  of  Tehran — Tower  of  Silence — Importance 
of  Tehran — Telegraph  Corps — The  Shah — Habits  of  Life — Character 
— Famine  in  Tehran — Relief — Mortality  among  the  Jews. 

The  principal  buildings  of  Tehran  are  the  palaces  of 
the  Shah  and  of  the  princes.  The  city  was  constructed 
at  first  without  any  plan.  The  bazaars  and  some  of 
the  caravansaries  are  high  and  built  of  burned  brick. 
In  some  the  arches  are  notable  for  their  beauty  of 
form,  and  for  the  tile  work. 

The  palaces  of  the  Shah  occupy  a  large  tract  of 
ground  in  the  northern  part  of  what  was  once  the  old 
city.  They  are  now  near  the  centre.  The  palace  was 
at  first  a  citadel,  and  was  called,  with  all  that  pertained 
to  it,  the  Ark ,  a  name  which  it  yet  retains,  though  it 
be  less  appropriate  now  than  in  former  times.  The 
walls  of  the  ark  include  the  Harem,  the  King’s  Berune, 


102 


VI.] 


PALACE  OF  THE  SUN. 


103 


Shams  al  Amara,  or  palace  of  the  sun,  the  throne 
room,  offices  of  the  war  department,  the  government 
telegraph  offices,  and  all  the  buildings  used  by  the 
government,  including  the  King’s  College.  There  are 
streets  on  the  four  sides  of  the  wall  inclosing  these 
structures. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  ark  there  is  an  avenue 
leading  from  the  gate  Nasireyah,  at  the  northern  ex¬ 
tremity,  southward  to  the  bazaar.  This  gateway  was 
covered  with  enameled  tiles  set  in  very  beautiful  com¬ 
binations.  It  has  been  torn  down  and  a  gateway  of 
less  beauty  has  been  erected  in  its  place.  On  either 
side  of  this  avenue,  is  a  row  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and 
the  street  is  paved  with  rough  stone.  Another  avenue 
called  Doulat,  leads  from  a  high  gateway  of  that  name, 
and  parallel  with  the  street  Nasireyah,  to  the  centre 
of  the  northern  front  of  the  palace  grounds,  and  to  the 
principal  portal  on  the  north.  This  portal  is  very 
elaborately  finished  with  mirror  glass  set  in  plaster 
of  Paris  and  stucco.  A  gateway  similar  to  this  has 
recently  been  made  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  ark,  in 
front  of  the  palace  of  the  sun.  That  on  the  south  is 
less  elaborate. 

The  interior  of  this  inclosure  is  divided  into  many 
courts  occupied  by  buildings  devoted  to  different  pur¬ 
poses.  In  one  court  there  is  a  throne  room.  The 
throne  is  of  alabaster,  and  is  little  more  than  a  square 
platform  composed  of  slabs  of  alabaster  resting  on 
carved  legs  of  the  same  material,  and  having  a  small 


104 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vi. 


flight  of  steps.  The  ceiling  and  walls  are  decorated 
with  mirror  glass  and  portraits  of  members  of  the 
royal  family,  the  kings  of  the  Kajars.  There  are  two 
large  pillars  supporting  the  ceiling.  Between  these 
there  is  a  large  window  opening  upon  the  court. 
This  court  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  building ;  in  it 
are  paved  walks,  fountains,  flowers  and  plane  trees. 
The  window  is  removed  or  open  when  the  Shah  is 
seated  on  the  throne,  so  that  he  may  be  seen  from 
every  quarter  of  the  court.  The  throne  is  raised 
about  four  feet  from  the  floor  of  the  room,  and  the 
floor  is  some  three  feet  above  the  outer  pavement. 

By  custom  the  Shah  ascends  the  throne  on  No 
Ruz,1  and  on  the  anniversary  of  his  birth.  On  the 
former  occasion  he  holds  a  reception  for  the  foreign 
representatives ;  this  over,  he  walks  from  the  interior 
palace  to  the  throne.  He  is  usually  in  court  costume, 
the  chief  feature  of  which  is  the  diamonds  with  which 
he  and  his  sword  are  decorated.  He  sits  down  upon 
the  throne,  a  rug  being  spread  upon  it  and  a  pillow 
for  this  purpose.  Here  he  smokes  the  kalyon  and 
sips  a  sherbet,  while  a  poem  is  being  read  by  the  poet 
laureate ,  and  the  salams  of  the  courtiers  are  made. 
He  remains  but  a  few  moments,  and  retires  as  he 
came.  The  throne  room  is  an  inferior  and  inexpensive 
structure,  worthy  of  note  on  account  of  its  uses  and 
associations  only. 

The  Shams  al  Amara  is  a  very  high  structure,  and 

1  New  Year. 


I 


vi.]  THE  KING'S  COLLEGE.  105 

•  ;  _  v 

contracted  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  so  that  the 
shape  is  odd.  It  reminds  one  of  the  architecture  of 
ancient  Egypt.  The  windows  are  filled  with  an  open 
brick  work,  so  that  persons  within  can  see  what  is 
passing  without,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are  un¬ 
observed.  This  structure  is  used  by  the  king  exclu¬ 
sively.  The  exterior  surface  is  covered  with  glazed 
tiles  from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  The  flag  of  Persia 
floats  from  a  cupola  of  the  roof.  The  offices  of  the 
War  Department  are  on  the  western  side  of  the  ark. 
The  arsenal  contains  weapons  of  European  manufac¬ 
ture.  The  work  done  is  chiefly  repair  of  arms,  casting 
cannon  balls,  and  the  manufacture  of  gun  carriages 
and  carts.  It  has  been  customary  to  employ  a  Euro¬ 
pean  to  superintend  the  work. 

The  King’s  College  is  near  the  Shams  al  Amara. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  stalls,  which  may  be  called 
rooms,  arranged  on  the  four  sides  of  a  court,  and  one 
story  high.  Students  do  not  lodge  in  the  building, 
but  receive  one  meal  a  day  in  the  college,  two  suits  of 
clothes  per  annum,  and  an  allowance  in  money  of 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  tomans,  according  to  the  profi¬ 
ciency  of  the  pupil  in  the  studies  of  the  course.  The 
number  of  students  in  attendance  is  usually  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty.  Several  of  the  professors  are  Euro¬ 
peans,  and  the  text-books  are  translations  from  the 
French.  The  studies  pursued  beside  the  primary 
branches,  are  advanced  mathematics,  languages,  mili¬ 
tary  tactics,  and  music.  The  languages  studied  are 


io6 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vr. 


Arabic,  French,  English  and  Russian.  Engineering, 
telegraphy,  and  painting  are  also  taught.  All  the 
students  are  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  government 
as  to  their  future  occupation.  The  student,  may,  how¬ 
ever,  select  the  department  of  his  service,  with  the 
approval  of  the  raiese ,  or  superintendent  of  the  college. 

Young  men  of  Jewish  or  Christian  parents  are  not 
required  to  attend  the  religious  services  appointed  for 
Mohammedans.  But  they  are  not  exempt  on  Sabbath 
days  from  the  usual  duties  of  the  class-room. 

The  king’s  treasury  is  within  the  Ark,  and  the 
crown  jewels  are  kept  here.  The  most  famous  of  the 
diamonds  is  that  called  Dareae  Nur,  or  Sea  of  Light. 
It  was  obtained  in  India,  and  is  said  to  be  the  largest 
first-class  diamond  in  the  world.  It  is  thought,  how¬ 
ever,  to  be  somewhat  inferior  in  quality  to  that  of  the 
Kuhe  Nur,  or  Mountain  of  Light,  now  in  possession 
of  the  British  Crown. 

The  king’s  stables  are  on  the  west  of  the  palace 
grounds.  Some  of  the  horses  are  very  fine  animals 
of  the  Arab  and  Turkman  breeds.  The  king’s  horses 
are  known  in  the  street  by  the  fact  that  their  tails  are 
dyed  a  rose  color. 

The  takeah  of  the  Shah  is  situated  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Ark.  It  is  a  large  brick  structure  in  the 
form  of  a  rotunda.  The  walls,  although  several  yards 
thick,  are  not  thought  to  be  sufficiently  reliable  to 
support  the  contemplated  dome  of  brick.  In  place  of 
this,  a  canvas  is  stretched  over  the  top  when  the  build- 


VI.] 


THE  KING'S  G ARDENS. 


107 


ing  is  used.  The  structure  was  erected  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  the  tazeah.  This  is  the  name  given  to  the 
religious  theatricals  performed  in  commemoration  of 
the  Imams,  in  the  month  Moharam. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  old  city,  and  within  the 
new  addition,  are  two  gardens  of  the  Shah.  The 
more  northern  of  the  two  is  called  Guleshan.  It  was 
constructed  by  order  of  Fattah  Ale  Shah.  The  struc¬ 
tures  within  were  never  remarkable  for  beauty  or 
excellence.  The  principal  edifice  contains  a  room, 
which  attracts  attention  by  means  of  the  paintings 
which  represent  the  Shah  holding  a  reception  of  for¬ 
eign  representatives.  On  the  west  of  this  building 
there  is  a  bath  house.  The  corridors  and  rooms  of 
this  are  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  are 
covered  with  domes  of  brick.  Under  the  principal 
dome  there  is  a  fountain  and  pavement.  A  slide  of 
smooth  alabaster  inclining  at  a  sharp  angle,  and  about 
fifteen  feet  long,  terminates  near  the  fountain.  It  was  a 
favourite  amusement  of  the  Shah  to  slide  down  this 
alabaster  pavement,  and  to  see  his  wives  slide  down. 
The  performance  was  attended  with  the  danger  of 
bruises  on  the  pavement  below. 

Quite  all  the  gardens  of  the  king  and  princes  are 
constructed  with  the  same  essential  features.  There 
is  a  high  gateway  opening  to  the  first  court.  The 
second  court  is  entered  by  passing  a  guard-house, 
which  was  occupied  by  soldiers.  In  this  couit  is  a 
kulla  frangee,  or  French  hat.  This  name  is  given 


io8 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[VI. 


to  a  small  summer  house  constructed  of  brick  and 
elaborately  finished,  and  containing  one  room.  Be¬ 
yond  this  are  the  Berune  and  the  Andarune.  In 
some  of  the  king’s  gardens  there  is  no  andarune,  or 
harem.  The  garden  Lala  Zar  is  close  by  the  gate 
Nasireyah,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Tob  Mai- 
don.  The  wall  of  sun-dried  brick  on  the  western  side 
has  been  taken  awpy  and  in  its  place  there  is  pow  a 
high  picket  fence.  The  large  plane  trees  and  beds  of 
flowers  are  the  most  attractive  features  of  this  garden. 
It  serves  now  as  a  park. 

The  Tob  Maidon  was  in  process  of  construction 
when  we  entered  the  city.  It  has  been  completed. 
The  name  signifies  the  place  of  the  cannon.  It  is  a 
parallelogram,  extending  in  length  from  the  eastern 
side  of  the  gate  Nasireyah  to  the  western  side  of  the 
gate  Doulat,  so  as  to  include  both  of  these  gateways. 
There  are  two  gates  on  the  north  side,  opening  into 
streets  running  north,  and  corresponding  to  the  gates 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Maidon.  There  is  also  a  gate 
at  each  end  opening  into  its  street.  The  sides  of  the 
Maidon  are  constructed  of  burned  brick  and  consist 
of  two  stories  of  rooms.  The  lower  rooms  are 
occupied,  each  with  one  gun  mounted  on  its  carriage. 
The  rooms  above  are  for  the  artillerymen.  There  is  a 
large  reservoir  of  water  in  the  centre  of  the  Maidon. 
This  public  place,  and  the  streets  leading  from  it  to 
the  king’s  palace,  are  lighted  with  gas,  and  the  palace 
is  provided  with  a  few  electric  lights.  This  arrange- 


VI.] 


MOSQUES  OF  TEHRAN. 


109 


ment  was  introduced  in  1879  and  1880.  There  is  no 
arrangement  for  lighting  any  other  part  of  the  city. 
The  gate  Doulat  consists  of  an  arch  over  the  street. 
With  its  second  arch  and  dome,  or  roof,  it  has  a  height 
of  about  sixty  feet  from  the  pavement.  The  brick¬ 
work  of  both  sides  is  of  glazed  tiles  set  in  many 
designs  and  colours. 

The  principal  mosques  of  Tehran  are  the  Maschide 
Shah,  Maschide  Madre  Shah,  Maschide  Meyer.  The 
king’s  son-in-law  presides  over  the  first.  The  madras- 
sahs,  in  connection  with  several  of  the  mosques,  are 
for  the  Mullahs,  and  may  be  called  theological  semi¬ 
naries. 

The  several  precincts  of  the  city  are  distinguished 
by  names :  as  Casveen  gate,  Shimron  gate,  Poie  Chinar 
or  the  foot  of  the  plane  tree,  Sar  Chesmah,  the  head 
spring,  and  the  like.  The  bazaars  are  constructed  by 
rich  men ;  as  are  also  the  caravansaries.  The  stalls 
are  rented.  Some  sections  of  the  bazaars  belong  to 
mosques,  to  which  they  have  been  bequeathed.  The 
bazaar  proper  consists  of  a  row  of  rooms  or  stalls  on 
either  side  of  a  road  or  passage,  which  is  covered  by  a 
brick  arch  resting  on  the  partition  walls  of  the  stalls. 
A  stall  is  rarely  more  than  ten  by  thirty  feet  in  size. 
The  end  next  the  passage  is  provided  with  movable 
doors.  On  passing  along  the  narrow  alley  separating 
the  stalls,  one  may  observe  workmen  sitting  in  the 
shops,  and  busy  making  hats,  shoes,  or  other  articles 
of  trade.  The  different  kinds  of  goods  are  usually 


no 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vi. 


kept  separate.  Some  sections  of  the  bazaar  are  given 
up  wholly  to  the  manufacture  or  to  the  sale  of  one 
kind  of  goods.  The  section  called  Cheet  Frush  is 
devoted  wholly  to  the  sale  of  calico,  and  Kand  Frush 
to  the  sale  of  sugar,  tea  and  coffee.  There  is  quite  a 
number  of  shops  in  which  Persian  carpenters  manu¬ 
facture  chairs,  tables,  lounges,  and  bedsteads.  In  the 
summer  season  and  autumn  the  bazaars  are  well  stocked 
with  fruits  and  vegetables ;  and  there  are  certain  mar¬ 
kets  to  which  caravans  resort  with  wood,  hay,  straw, 
and  grain.  A  multitude  of  human  beings  pass  to  and 
fro  through  the  arched  way,  and  long  trains  of  camels, 
horses,  and  donkeys,  force  a  passage  through  the  crowd, 
their  burdens  of  wood,  hay,  or  boxes,  quite  filling  up 
the  road,  and  compelling  all  pedestrians  to  halt,  or  to 
find  refuge  in  the  shops. 

Several  thousand  soldiers  are  kept  in  and  about  the 
city.  They  are  drilled  by  European  masters,  employed 
by  the  Shah  for  this  purpose.  A  very  large  maidon 
has  been  constructed  for  the  drill.  This  is  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  city.  The  barracks  of  some  of 
the  troops  are  in  the  vicinity  of  this  maidon.  In  the 
summer  season  the  soldiers  are  quartered  in  tents  near 
the  palace  Kasr  Kajar  on  the  road  to  Shimron. 

The  city  is  supplied  with  water  by  means  of  con- 
naughts,  and  cisterns  such  as  I  have  described.  The 
public  baths  are  numerous,  and  all  classes  of  the  people 
resort  to  them.  Christians  and  other  people  not  Mo¬ 
hammedan,  are  not  permitted  to  use  the  public  bath. 


VL] 


THE  BRITISH  LEGATION. 


HI 


Every  religious  sect,  therefore,  must  have  its  own  bath. 
Europeans  usually  patronize  that  of  the  Armenians. 
The  public  baths  are  open  to  women  on  certain  days 
of  every  week. 

Previous  to  1871,  the  British  legation  occupied 
buildings  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city.  In  that 
year  new  premises  were  completed  in  the  extreme 
northern  quarter  of  the  town,  and  were  occupied  by 
the  legation.  There  were  then  very  few  buildings  in 
this  quarter;  but  now  all  the  foreign  legations  are 
located  here,  and  the  district  has  been  filled  with  the 
residences  of  Persians,  many  of  whom  are  rich  princes, 
and  officers  of  the  government.  The  British  legation 
occupies  a  garden  of  about  sixty  acres.  The  premises 
consist  of  a  large  central  building,  and  of  four  dwell¬ 
ing  houses.  The  whole  establishment,  I  am  told,  cost 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tomans.  The 
premises  of  the  Russian  legation  are  nearer  the  centre 
of  the  city  than  those  of  any  other  foreign  represen¬ 
tatives.  The  buildings  are  substantial  and  commodi¬ 
ous.  In  1872,  the  legations  were  those  of  England, 
Russia,  France  and  Turkey.  Since  that  date,  Holland, 
Austria,  the  United  States  and  Prussia  have  sent  rep¬ 
resentatives  to  the  court  of  the  Shah.  All  these  lega¬ 
tions  have  summer  residences  on  the  southern  slope 
of  Mount  Shimron.  The  French  rent  a  garden  in 
Tagreesh.  The  Turks  own  good  grounds  just  below 
Tagreesh.  The  English  have  premises  in  the  village 
of  Gulhek,  and  the  Russians  in  Zargendah.  The 


1 12 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[VI. 


English  and  the  Russian  legations  have  each  the  con¬ 
trol  of  the  village  in  which  it  is  located.  The  British 
minister  receives  a  salary  of  five  thousand  pounds  and 
perquisites,  and  the  Russian  minister  has  very  nearly 
as  much. 

In  the  southeastern  quarter  of  the  city,  near  the 
gate  Shah  Abd  al  Azeem,  there  are  some  forty  fam¬ 
ilies  of  Armenians,  and  near  the  Casveen  gate,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  town,  there  are  seventy  more  fam¬ 
ilies  of  this  sect.  The  Jews  are  concentrated  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  city.  Many  Mohammedans  live  in 
close  proximity  to  the  Jews  and  Armenians. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  city  the  Poie  Kopak,  or 
foot  of  the  pole,  is  distinguished  as  the  place  of  public 
executions.  Here  the  criminals  are  beheaded,  and  the 
heads  exposed  on  the  pole  as  soon  as  they  are  severed 
from  the  body. 

The  Shah  has  several  palaces  on  Shimron.  The 
Kasr  Kajar  is  about  two  miles  northward  of  the  Shim¬ 
ron  gate.  It  is  an  old  palace  constructed  by  former 
kings  of  the  Kajar  dynasty.  Sultanabad  is  some 
three  miles  beyond  the  Kasr,  and  Neavaran  is  the 
farthest  up  the  mountain  of  all,  and  is  at  the  foot  of 
the  most  abrupt  ascent  of  the  mountain.  The  large 
building  erected  as  a  woolen  factory,  which  in  1872 
was  vacant,  has  been  converted  into  a  mint.  It  is  near 
Sultanabad.  The  government  powder  mills  are  a 
short  distance  southeast  of  the  mint. 

The  population  of  Tehran  in  1872,  and  in  the  ab- 


VI.] 


POPULATION  OF  TEHRAN 


113 

sence  of  any  census  was  estimated  to  be  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  souls.  It  is  now 1 
reckoned  at  two  hundred  thousand.  The  Europeans 
are  no  more  than  about  one  hundred.  They  are  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  legations,  telegraph  offices,  and  in  the 
service  of  the  Shah.  The  Jews  claimed  three  hundred 
houses,  or  one  thousand  five  hundred  souls  ;  they 
now 2  number  not  less  than  two  thousand  five  hun¬ 
dred.  The  Armenians,  in  1872,  were  about  one  thou¬ 
sand  in  the  city,  and  three  hundred  in  the  villages  of 
Shimron.  This  Jewish  colony  began  with  people 
from  the  village  of  Damavand,  near  the  mountain  of 
that  name,  where  Jews  were  settled  prior  to  the  found¬ 
ing  of  Tehran.  The  Jews  of  Tehran  have  ten  syna¬ 
gogues,  all  of  which  are  no  more  than  dismal,  dirty 
rooms.  They  have  also  two  or  three  schools,  in  which 
the  boys  are  taught  to  read  Hebrew  only.  The  people 
of  this  colony  are  occupied  with  trade  ;  many  are  physi¬ 
cians,  and  quite  all  of  them  manufacture  wine  and  arak. 

The  Armenians  of  Tehran  are  merchants  and  arti¬ 
sans.  They  have  one  caravansary  and  two  churches, 
and  a  school  of  twenty-five  boys.  All  the  pupils  were 
required  to  pay  about  one  karan 3  a  week  as  tuition. 
A  few  of  these  Armenians  are  from  Russia.  There 
are  among  the  Persian  Armenians  several  families  of 
the  nobility  of  Armenia.  The  representatives  of  these 
households  have  been  pernfitted  to  retain  their  titles, 
and  have  been  pensioned  by  the  Shahs.  The  Arme- 

1  1884.  2  1884.  3  A  karan  equals  about  20  cents. 

8 


1 14  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [vi. 

nian  priests  are  subject  to  the  Archbishop  of  Julfah. 
The  church  in  the  southeastern  quarter,  called  Darvazah 
Shah  Abd  al  Azeem,  is  near  the  premises  formerly  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  British  legation,  and  the  graves  of  quite  a 
number  of  Europeans  are  within  its  walls.  A  tablet  in 
the  church  marks  the  grave  of  a  son  of  Walter  Scott. 
A  tablet  in  the  wall  of  the  court  is  in  memory  of  Rev. 
William  Glenn,  translator  of  the  Old  Testament  Scrip¬ 
tures  into  Persian.  On  completion  of  his  work  in  As- 
trakan,  Mr.  Glenn  resided  with  his  son  in  Tehran. 

The  Guebers  of  Tehran  number  an  hundred  and  fifty 
souls.  They  are  from  Yezd  and  Kerman,  and  are  for 
the  most  part  merchants  dealing  in  silks,  calico,  and 
carpets.  A  school  for  the  children  of  Guebers  is 
under  the  supervision  of  a  member  of  the  Parsee  com¬ 
munity  of  Bombay.  The  object  of  this  gentleman’s 
residence  here  is  the  improvement  of  the  political 
and  material  condition  of  the  Guebers  of  Persia. 
The  singular  funeral  rites  of  this  people  are  prac¬ 
tised  here,  and  their  dead  are  exposed  on  a  tower  of 
silence,  in  a  lonely  spot  on  the  mountain  near  the  ruins 
of  Ra,  and  overlooking  the  plain  and  city  of  Tehran. 
The  white  walls  of  the  tower  are  visible  from  the  plain. 

Excepting  the  small  number  of  Europeans,  and  the 
non-Mohammedans,  the  population  is  wholly  Mussul¬ 
man.  The  tendency  is  to  disregard  the  race  distinc¬ 
tions  of  Iranians  and  Turks,  and  the  Persian  language, 
though  not  the  native  tongue  of  the  Kajars,  is  the  lan¬ 
guage  of  the  literature  and  law,  and  promises  to  retain 


VI.] 


IMPORTANCE  OF  TEHRAN 


n5 


its  supremacy  throughout  the  country.  Tehran  is  the 
most  important  city  between  Constantinople  and  the 
Indus,  or  the  wall  of  China.  It  is  now  in  telegraphic 
connection  with  the  capital  of  every  province.  This 
facility  of  communication  is  doing  much  to  strengthen 
the  central  government  and  to  enlighten  the  people. 
The  government  of  India  owns  a  line  of  telegraph 
from  Tehran  to  Bushire,  and  by  way  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  the  Indus ;  and  it  has  in  Tehran  a  superin¬ 
tendent  and  corps  of  telegraphists.  The  Indo-European 
Telegraph  Company  has  here  a  corps  of  telegraphists 
and  a  superintendent.  It  controls  a  line  from  Tehran 
to  the  Aras  and  via  Russia  to  London. 

The  reigning  Shah,  Nasir  id  Deen,  or  the  Support 
of  Religion,  succeeded  his  father,  Mohammed  Shah, 
on  the  20th  of  October,  1848,  and  in  the  eighteenth 
year  of  his  age.  He  is  a  person  of  prepossessing 
appearance ;  of  medium  stature,  and  stout  frame, 
though  not  fleshy.  He  wears  a  moustache,  and  the 
beard  is  shaven.  As  he  appears  in  the  street,  he 
wears  a  black  cloth  coat  and  pants,  and  black  brim¬ 
less  hat  of  Astrakan  or  lamb  skin.  When  riding  or 
driving,  he  is  usually  attended  by  a  large  number  of 
courtiers  and  soldiers.  Shahteers  walk  by  the  side  of 
the  king  a  short  distance  from  him.  These  men  are 
distinguished  by  bright  scarlet  uniforms,  and  grotesque 
hats.  The  king  is  preceded  and  followed  by  horse¬ 
men  bearing  silver-headed  and  gold-headed  maces. 
An  escort  of  cavalry  accompanies  the  cortege. 


Ii6 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[VI. 


The  wives  of  the  Shah  are  taken  in  accord  with  the 
Mohammedan  law.  That  law  allows  four  covenanted 
wives  called  ahdah,  and  any  number  of  concubines 
called  sekah.  I  asked  the  chief  eunuch  how  many 
wives  the  king  had ;  to  which  he  replied,  I  do  not 
know,  but  there  may  be  four  hundred.”  It  might 
require  some  calculation  to  ascertain  the  number ;  for 
of  the  sekah,  some  are  divorced,  and  some  live  at  a 
distance  from  the  palace.  Some  of  the  sekah  are 
taken  from  considerations  of  policy  merely,  as  a  bond 
of  alliance  with  some  of  the  chiefs  of  the  tribes,  and 
with  princes.  The  eldest  son  of  the  Shah,  Zile  Sul¬ 
tan,  was  born  of  a  sekah  wife,  the  daughter  of  a  peas¬ 
ant.  He  is  a  man  of  great  force  and  influence,  and 
has  the  government  of  a  large  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  second  or  heir  to  the  throne,  is  the  eldest  son 
by  a  covenanted  wife.  The  Naibe  Sultan,  agent  of  the 
king  and  third  son,  assists  in  the  government  of  Teh¬ 
ran,  and  is  now  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 

A  brother  of  the  Shah  is  governor  of  Hamadan. 
Another  brother  is  governor  of  Khorasan.  Two 
cousins  of  the  Shah,  Farhaud  Mirza  and  Feruz  Mirza, 
reside  in  Tehran,  and  have  held  important  positions  in 
the  government.  The  mother  of  the  Shah  died  during 
her  son’s  absence  in  Europe  in  1873.  She  was  held  in 
great  esteem  by  the  Shah  and  his  court.  By  the  cus¬ 
tom  of  the  succession,  the  mother  of  a  Shah  must  be  a 
covenanted  wife  and  a  princess. 

The  departure  of  the  king  for  his  summer  retreats 


VI.] 


THE  SHAH— HABITS  OF  LIFE. 


117 

is  preceded  by  an  exodus  of  the  Harem.  The  proces¬ 
sion  consists  of  many  carriages  and  mounted  men  who 
serve  as  escort  The  cortege  is  preceded  by  men  with 
green  sticks,  who  whip  any  persons  standing  in  the 
way.  The  men  run  in  advance  and  cry  out,  the 
“  King’s  Harem !  Avert  your  eyes !  Turn  your 
faces !  ”  The  populace  have  learned  that  it  is  prudent 
not  only  to  turn  the  face  but  to  get  out  of  the  street. 
The  ladies  of  the  Harem  are  honoured  with  very  ex¬ 
pressive  titles  conferred  by  the  king,  such  as  :  Anesed 
Doulat,  United  to  the  Kingdom  ;  Shams  al  Doulat,  the 
Sun  of  the  Kingdom  ;  Aktar  al  Doulat,  the  Star  of  the 
Kingdom;  Ismat  al  Doulat,  the  Chastity  of  the  King¬ 
dom  ;  Shukur  al  Doulat,  the  Sweetness  of  the  Kingdom. 
The  king,  during  quite  all  the  winter,  resides  in  the 
,ark  in  Tehran.  He  spends,  usually,  a  few  days  of  the 
winter  in  hunting  in  the  mountains.  In  the  summer 
season  he  goes  from  palace  to  palace,  with  the  changes 
of  the  seasons. 

The  royal  bed  chamber  is  carefully  guarded.  All 
the  food  eaten  by  the  king  must  be  prepared  by  one 
or  two  persons.  The  chief  steward,  or  person  who 
serves  at  the  table,  must  first  taste  of  every  dish  before 
giving  it  to  the  king,  in  proof  that  the  food  does  not 
contain  poison.  The  habits  of  the  Shah  have  in  them 
much  that  is  both  Oriental  and  Occidental.  The 
palace  is  furnished  with  imported  mirrors,  chandeliers, 
and  other  articles.  The  royal  table  is  adorned  with 
silver  and  China  ware.  The  Shah,  however,  does  not 


n8 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[VI. 


refuse  to  have  his  divan  spread  upon  the  floor,  nor 
does  he  hesitate  to  taste  his  food  with  his  fingers  in 
lieu  of  fork  and  spoon.  The  Shah  is  a  patron  of 
learning,  and  has  written  several  books.  %  He  has  a 
minister  of  science  and  a  censor  of  the  press.  There 
is  a  printing  press  owned  by  the  government,  and 
one  or  two  newspapers  are  published  in  Persian. 
Nasir  id  Deen  Shah  is  by  far  the  mildest  and  best 
disposed  prince  that  has  ruled  in  Persia.  He  is  also 
the  most  progressive.  He  has  done  more  for  the 
improvement  of  the  country  than  any  other  Shah. 
But  he  has  made  no  radical  changes  and  reforms,  and 
there  is  no  indication  that  he  contemplates  making 
any. 

The  famine  prevailed  in  Tehran  during  the  winter 
and  spring  of  1871-2.  It  was  closely  followed  by  the 
cholera  in  1871.  Many  thousand  refugees  from  other 
districts  fled  to  the  capital,  hoping  to  obtain  relief 
from  the  king’s  bounty.  Some  aid  was  given  by 
Europeans,  and  at  last  by  the  authorities.  The  famish¬ 
ing  were  employed  to  construct  roads,  and  to  repair 
the  moat  about  the  city.  The  price  of  wheat  was  at 
one  time  forty  tomans,  or  near  eighty  dollars  for  about 
seven  hundred  pounds  weight.  The  Jews  of  Tehran 
received  funds  from  their  co-religionists  in  London ; 
yet  before  this  assistance  was  given,  many  perished 
here  as  elsewhere.  Three  hundred  Jews  died  of  the 
famine  in  Tehran. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Departure  for  Ham  ad  an — March  by  Moonlight — Altitude  of  the  Coun¬ 
try — Khanabad  Ruins — Kushak — Pass  of  the  Karaghan  Mountains 
— Bevaron — Altitude  of  the  Pass — Damavand — Journey  to  the  Arme¬ 
nian.  Villages  of  Karaghan — Condition  of  the  Armenians — Armenian 
Priest — Origin  of  the  Colony — From  Lar  to  Nobaron — Pass  of  the 
Yebel  Islam — From  Bevaron  to  Nobaron — The  Village  of  Nobaron — 
Zara — River — Malagird — Victims  of  Famine — Alvand — Village  of 
Shevarin — Situation  of  Ham  ad  an — Altitude  of  the  Plain  and  of 
Alvand — Ancient  Cities — Dejoces — Ecbatana — Construction  of  the 
City — Ancient  Splendour — Cyrus — Identity  of  Achmetha  and  Ecbatana 
— Destruction  of  the  City  by  Tim  our- — Antiquities — W  ater  Courses — 
Mausoleum  of  Avicinna — Population — Reduction  by  b  amine  and 
Cholera — Protestants — Antiquity  of  the  Jewish  Colony — The  Shrine 
of  Esther  and  Mordecai — Condition  of  the  Armenians — Trade  of 
Hamadan — Telegraph — From  Hamadan  to  Oroomiah — ICamkase 
and  Chibooklee — Altitude  of  the  Country — Situation  of  Senah — De¬ 
parture  from  Senah — Kurdish  Villages — Souj  Bolak — Sulduz — Coun¬ 
try  between  Sulduz  and  Ravanduz — Midnight  Manzil — Return  to 
Seir — Tour  of  Mr.  Stocking  to  Mosul  and  Death  of  Mrs.  Stocking- 
Departure  from  Oroomiah  for  Tehran. 

My  next  object,  after  seeing  Tehran,  was » to  visit 
Hamadan.  The  latter  city  is  forty-eight  farasangs,  or 
about  two  hundred  miles  southwest  of  the  capital. 
The  hot  season  was  now  at  hand.  Many  of  the 
Europeans  had  left  Tehran  for  the  summer  retreats 
of  Shimron,  five  and  six  miles  from  the  city.  As 

nothing  was  to  be  gained  by  the  delay  of  caravan 

119 


120 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vn. 


travel,  I  sold  my  horses  and  hired  those  belonging  to 
the  chapar. 

The  word  chapar  is  from  a  verb  meaning  to  gallop. 
It  denotes  the  Persian  post.  The  horses  are  let  at  the 
rate  of  one  karan  a  farasang,  and  may  be  ridden  on  a 
gallop.  The  chapar  khanahs,  or  post  houses,  are  con¬ 
structed  by  the  government.  They  are  let  to  con¬ 
tractors  who  agree  to  furnish  horses  as  required  by 
the  authorities,  and  for  the  use  of  the  government  mes¬ 
sengers,  at  a  stipulated  rate.  The  horses  may  be  let 
to  other  than  agents  of  the  Shah,  on  presentation  of  an 
order  from  the  proper  authority.  A  post  boy,  called 
a  shagird,  accompanies  the  horses,  and  when  the  stage 
is  completed  drives  them  back  to  the  post  house 
whence  they  were  taken.  The  'length  of  a  stage  is 
usually  from  four  to  six  farasangs,  and  with  fair  horses 
it  is  usual  to  ride  two  farasangs  in  one  hour.  By  con¬ 
tinuous  riding  and  frequent  change  of  horses  a  person 
may  accomplish  a  long  distance  in  the  course  of  a  few 
days. 

The  post  houses  are  constructed  on  one  plan.  A 
square  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  some  ten  or  fifteen  feet 
high.  On  the  inside  of  this  on  three  sides  stables  are 
made  for  horses  and  rooms  for  grain.  On  the  fourth 
side  or  front  there  is  a  gateway,  on  either  side  of 
which  are  rooms  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers. 
There  is  usually  a  chamber  above  the  gateway  which 
is  called  a  bala  khanah.  These  rooms  are  kept  by 
the  chapar  bashee,  or  keeper  of  the  post  house,  and 


VII.} 


CHAPAR  RIDING , 


121 


are  in  a  most  ruinous  condition  in  a  short  time  after 
their  construction. 

The  post  horses  are  in  a  worse  state  than  the  rooms, 
for  it  is  customary  to  purchase  vicious  and  worthless 
animals  for  this  service.  One  or  two  fairly  good 
horses  are  kept  at  each  station  for  the  accommodation 
of  distinguished  or  favoured  guests.  In  time  these 
brutes  become  hardened  to  the  service,  and  are  then 
called  by  Persians,  poktah  (that  is,  cooked),  a  term  com¬ 
monly  applied  to  animals  and  men  who  by  experience 
and  hardship  have  been  inured  to  severe  labour  and 
prepared  for  hard  service.  The  horses  are  by  no 
means  sure-footed.  They  frequently  fall  and  break 
their  necks.  I  have  seen  a  chapar  horse,  however, 
fall  and  turn  a  complete  somersault,  and  come  up 
instantly  without  the  least  harm  to  himself,  his  rider  at 
the  instant  of  the  fall  having  been  thrown  over  the 
horse’s  head  and  entirely  out  of  the  way.  Chapar 
riding  is  attended  with  some  dangers  as  are  other 
modes  of  travel. 

The  chapar  horses,  which  are  usually  in  bad  con¬ 
dition,  were  now  the  survivors  of  the  late  famine,  and 
gave  good  evidence  of  having  barely  survived.  Hav¬ 
ing  obtained  from  H.  B.  M.  Charge  d’affaires  a  request 
to  the  Persian  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  that  I  be 
allowed  to  hire  post  horses,  and  having  received  the 
order  from  the  Persian  Minister,  and  having  sent  the 
order  to  the  Chapar  Bashee,  and  having  given  a  tip  to 
that  functionary,  we  mounted  the  horses  and  left 


122 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[VII. 


Tehran  by  the  Hamadan  gate  at  ten  o’clock  at  night 
on  the  26th  of  June. 

The  days  were  so  hot  that  it  was  necessary  to  travel 
by  night  over  the  plain  of  Tehran.  In  the  moonlight 
we  could  distinguish  the  villages  near  which  the  road 
passed,  and  these  with  the  small  water  courses  gave 
evidence  of  the  presence  of  cultivated  lands.  We 
entered  the  village  of  Rabadkareem  at  the  earliest 
dawn.  Obtaining  fresh  horses  and  a  light  breakfast, 
we  began  the  second  stage  with  the  rising  sun.  We 
were  told  that  no  fresh  water  could  be  obtained  during 
this  stage,  and  so  filled  our  water  jugs  from  the  stream 
of  clear  water  which  flows  near  the  village ;  but  the 
jugs  were  broken  before  we  had  gone  a  farasang,  and 
we  learned  the  advantage  to  be  gained  in  the  use  of 
leathern  bottles. 

The  road  led  over  a  gradual  ascent  having  an  altitude 
of  from  five  thousand  to  five  thousand  five  hundred 
feet.  About  two  farasangs  from  Rabadkareem  we 
passed  an  old  caravansary  now  deserted.  Half  a 
farasang  beyond  it  is  a  small  stream  and  a  deep  valley, 
that  of  the  Shore  River.  The  descent  to  the  valley  is 
between  hillocks  of  clay  and  gravel,  and  in  a  tortuous 
course.  The  old  caravansaiy  and  the  vicinity  of  it 
are  famous  as  the  rendezvous  of  banditti. 

There  is  no  other  house  than  this  in  a  distance  of 
twenty-five  miles,  and  there  is  not  a  tree  or  shrub  to 
be  seen  in  all  the  way.  When  we  had  completed  about 
two-thirds  of  the  stage  we  came  to  a  deep  and  broad 


VII.] 


KUSHAK. 


123 


valley.  A  small  stream  of  brackish  water  issued  from 
a  connaught,  the  only  water  supply  of  the  villages  on 
its  course.  About  midday  we  reached  the  chapar 
khanah  called  Khanabad  and  obtained  a  jug  of  fresh 
water  by  sending  a  man  about  three  miles  for  it.  As 
the  people  of  the  village  have  learned  to  use  the  brack¬ 
ish  water  they  do  not  feel  the  need  of  anything  better. 
A  few  rods  northeast  of  this  station  there  is  a  mound 
and  in  and  about  it  are  heavy  stone  columns  and 
square  blocks  which  appear  to  have  been  bases  and 
capitals.  These  remains  cannot  be  referred  to  any 
modern  structure  and  must  have  belonged  to  some 
very  ancient  building  as  a  fire  or  idolatrous  temple. 

Remaining  over  night  here,  we  started  in  the  early 
morning  for  Kushak  a  distance  of  six  farasangs.  At 
this  village,  also,  only  brackish  water  could  be  ob¬ 
tained.  Of  the  sixty  families  that  composed  this  village 
two  years  ago,  only  fourteen  remained.  The  famine 
had  dispersed  or  destroyed  the  forty-six  households. 
From  Kushak  there  is  an  ascent  of  the  Karaghan 
mountains  by  the  pass  called  Azad  Dah.  We  had  but 
little  faith  that  the  horses  would  hold  out  to  make  the 
ascent,  but  by  exercising  care  and  much  patience,  we 
succeeded  in  crossing  the  highest  and  most  rugged 
part  of  the  journey,  and  reached  the  chapar  khanah 
of  Bevaron  soon  after  nightfall.  The  altitude  of  the 
summit  of  the  pass  is  about  seven  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea.  In  many  places  between  Tehran  and  this  pass 
the  cone  of  Damavand  is  plainly  visible.  There  are 


124 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vil. 


many  large  villages  in  the  valley  on  the  north  of  the 
Karaghan  range.  On  the  northern  slope  and  some  five 
farasangs  from  Bevaron  there  is  a  settlement  of  five 
villages  of  Armenians. 

It  will  be  in  place  to  give  here  a  brief  account  of 
these  Armenians  as  they  appeared  on  a  visit  made  to 
the  settlement  by  me,  in  the  autumn  of  1878.  The 
principal  villages  of  the  five  are  Lar  and  Tchenaktche. 
The  whole  number  of  Armenians  is  about  two  hun¬ 
dred.  They  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  are  very 
poor.  One-half  hour’s  ride  from  Tchenaktche,  up  the 
mountain,  is  the  upper  village  of  that  name.  It  is 
perched  on  a  crag  of  the  mountain  and  is  inhabited 
by  Armenians  only.  The  other  villages  have  Mo¬ 
hammedan  as  well  as  Armenian  inhabitants.  The 
difficulties  experienced  here  from  cold  and  snow  are 
compensated  by  a  large  spring  of  water  which  issues 
from  a  ledge  of  rock  abounding  in  fossils,  and  sends 
a  torrent  of  the  precious  fluid  to  the  plain  below,  suffi¬ 
cient  to  irrigate  the  fields  of  five  villages. 

An  Armenian  priest  resides  here  and  has  the  spirit¬ 
ual  and  much  of  the  temporal  oversight  of  the  settle¬ 
ment.  The  priesthood  has  been  in  his  family  during 
seven  generations.  I  was  more  interested  in  a  manu¬ 
script  copy  of  the  Four  Gospels  in  Armenian  with  notes 
in  Persian  which  he  exhibited  than  I  was  in  his  geneal¬ 
ogy.  The  volume  was  very  old  and  well  illuminated.  He 
kept  it  carefully  wrapped  in  a  cloth,  which  he  unfolded 
with  great  reverence,  as  if  removing  the  pall  from  a 


vn.] 


ARMENIANS—  CUSTOMS. 


125 


dead  body.  The  book  was  reverently  kissed  by  the 
priest  as  it  was  removed  from  the  cloth,  and  again  as 
it  was  wrapped  up.  Kissing  the  holy  book  is  one 
prominent  feature  of  the  religious  service  of  the  Ar¬ 
menian  Church.  The  church  of  sun-dried  brick  was 
unfinished,  yet  partly  in  ruin.  A  more  miserable  and 
desolate  cluster  of  dwellings  can  hardly  be  found  or 
imagined  than  the  mud  hovels  which  compose  these 
villages.  Scarce  a  tree  or  plant  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
vicinity,  for  all  the  water  is  needed  to  supply  the  arable 
lands. 

The  quiet  of  the  Sabbath  was  broken  by  the  arrival 
in  the  lower  village  of  a  company  of  tax  gatherers. 
They  were  soldiers  fully  armed,  and  prepared  to  seize 
whatever  the  people  were  reluctant  to  give.  No  great 
regard  for  the  Sabbath  seemed  to  be  entertained  by  the 
Armenians.  A  company  of  women  spent  the  day  in 
washing  wheat  and  spreading  it  upon  a  hill  in  the  centre 
of  the  town.  The  priest  went  off  to  a  neighbouring  vil¬ 
lage  to  complain  to  the  governor  of  the  unjust  taxation. 
The  people  of  this  settlement  claim  to  be  a  colony 
from  Ispahan,  who,  after  years  of  change  from  place  to 
place,  at  last  settled  down  in  this  region,  attracted 
hither  by  the  copious  supply  of  water  from  the  spring. 
They  suffered  a  great  deal  during  the  famine,  and  a 
large  number  removed  in  a  body  to  Russia,  but  being 
dissatisfied  there,  returned  to  this  place. 

The  distance  from  Lar  to  Nobaron  is  about  five 
farasangs.  The  road  passes  near  the  peak  called  Yebel 


126 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[vii. 


Islam.  I  am  told  that  from  the  summit  of  this  pass 
both  Mount  Damavand  and  Alvand  may  be  seen. 
The  clouds  which  intervened  prevented  me  from  seeing 
either  mountain.  From  the  top  of  the  pass  there  is 
an  extended  view  of  the  country  on  the  south,  and  of 
the  valley  of  the  stream  which  flows  past  Nobaron. 

Having  passed  the  greater  part  of  the  night  at  Be- 
varon,  we  pressed  on  to  Nobaron,  said  to  be  four  fara- 
sangs  distant.  The  latter  town  fs  the  principal  village 
between  Tehran  and  Hamadan.  It  has  a  population  of 
about  fifteen  hundred  souls,  all  of  whom  are  Moham¬ 
medans.  It  Fas  a  chapar  khanah  and  a  telegraph  office. 
A  large  connaught  pours  its  waters  upon  the  surface 
at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  the  village  stands. 
Large  shoals  of  fish  gather  at  the  head  of  the  water 
course.  They  are  consecrated  to  the  saint,  and  I  was 
told  that  it  would  be  considered  a  grave  offense  to 
catch  or  kill  any  of  them. 

Obtaining  fresh  horses  at  this  station,  we  started  at 

eight  o’clock  in  the  morning  for  a  ride  of  four  fara- 

sangs  to  the  next  station.  The  road  crosses  a  river 
«-> 

about  three  miles  west  of  the  town.  This  stream  we 
were  told  flows  to  near  Koom.  Our  road  now  passed 
over  a  hilly  country.  The  clay  appeared  to  be  of  a 
bluish  colour,  and  underneath  the  surface  were  bluish 
gray  stone  filled  with  fossil  shells.  The  region  passed 
in  this  stage  is  utterly  sterile  and  waterless.  We 
reached  the  chapar  khanah  about  midday ;  but,  al- 


VII.] 


ZARA— MALA  GIRD . 


127 


though  the  country  is  above  five  thousand  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  the  heat  of  the  day  was  intense. 
The  post  house  was  situated  in  a  village  of  three 
houses,  supplied  with  salt  water.  The  nearest  villages 
to  be  seen  were  about  two  farasangs  distant  on  the 
west.  At  four  o’clock  in  the  afternoon  we  resumed 
our  journey  and  rode  to  the  village  of  Zara,  making 
the  stage  of  the  day  about  fifty  miles,  a  very  short  ride 
considering  the  changes  of  horses,  and  effort  made. 
But  the  horses  were  too  poor  to  make  any  good  speed. 
Being  detained  at  Zara  for  horses  we  remained  until 
the  rising  of  the  moon.  There  is  a  fine  stream  of 
water  near  this  village,  which  flows  in  a  southeasterly 
course  in  a  rapid  current.  We  entered  Malagird  at 
sunrise,  and  changing  our  horses  rode  on  toward 
Hamadan.  We  passed  but  few  villages.  As  far  as  to 
Malagird,  and  several  miles  beyond,  the  road  passes 
over  a  level  plain.  Thence  it  crosses  low  mountains 
and  hills,  which  separate  the  plain  of  Malagird  from 
that  of  Hamadan.  In  one  village  the  skulls  and  bones 
of  human  beings  lay  in  the  ruins  of  deserted  huts. 
The  people  had  died  of  famine.  In  passing  a  village 
near  Shevarin,  we  met  men  who  were  bearing  the 
dead  bodies  of  some  of  the  victims  of  the  famine. 

The  mountain  Alvand  is  a  conspicuous  object.  It 
is  not,  however,  so  imposing  as  Damavand  and  Sa- 
hund.  The  plain  which  lies  on  the  north  of  Alvand 
and  at  its  base  is  apparently  fertile,  and  a  few  villages 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hamadan. 


128 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[VII. 


The  village  of  Shevarin  is  the  most  populous  on  the 
near  plain,  and  is  about  three  miles  from  Hamadan. 
It  has  a  population  of  ninety  families  of  Armenians, 
and  a  church  and  priest.  As  I  rode  through  the 
streets  I  observed  the  dead  body  of  a  man  lying  in 
the  dry  water  course.  He  had  died  of  the  famine. 
On  entering  Hamadan  I  noticed  the  dead  body  of  a 
child  lying  in  the  street. 

The  city  of  Hamadan  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  Alvand,  and  on  the  northern  side  of  that 
mountain  at  its  base,  from  which  it  is  distant  about 
three  miles.  The  site  of  the  city  has  an  elevation  above 
the  surface  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  of  six  thousand  feet. 
The  summit  of  Alvand  is  at  least  four  thousand  feet  above 
the  city.  The  antiquity  of  the  cities  situated  in  former 
times  on  this  plain  is  an  interesting  subject  of  inquiry. 
The  opinion  seems  to  prevail  with  those  persons  who 
have  examined  the  subject,  that  Hamadan  occupies 
the  site  of  the  most  ancient  capital  of  Media.  It  is 
believed  that  an  important  city  flourished  here  before 
the  time  of  Dejoces,  the  reputed  founder  of  the 
Median  kingdom.  That  prince  rebuilt  and  ornamented 
the  city  then  existing,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  his 
dominions.  The  place  was  known  to  the  Greeks  by 
the  name  Ecbatana. 

The  description  of  this  ancient  capital  as  given  by 
Herodotus  appears  to  correspond  very  nearly  with 
the  position  of  Hamadan.  The  chief  features  of  the 
construction  were  the  terraces,  which  are  thought  to 


VII.] 


ECBATANA. 


129 


have  been  the  model  of  the  hanging  gardens  of 
Babylon.  The  citadel  was  surrounded  by  seven  walls 
or  palisades,  each  one  differing  from  another  in  the 
material  of  construction,  height  and  color.  The  inner¬ 
most  wall  was  plated  with  gold  and  silver. 

The  city  attained  its  greatest  splendour  under  Cyrus. 
But  that  prince  did  not  confine  his  court  to  one 
place.  In  his  reign,  if  not  later,  Susa  became  a  capi¬ 
tal  and  a  rival  of  Ecbatana.  On  the  defeat  of  Darius 
by  Alexander,  the  city  passed  to  the  possession  of  the 
Greeks,  and  afterward  to  the  Romans.  The  Arsacidae 
made  Selucia  their  capital.  The  Parthians  built  Ctesi- 
phon,  and  the  Sassanians,  the  successors  of  the  Par¬ 
thians,  united  Selucia  and  Ctesiphon  in  A1  Maidan. 

During  these  changes  Ecbatana  preserved  very 
much  of  its  former  pre-eminence.  As  late  as  the 
third  century  a.  d.,  Tiridates  of  Armenia  ornamented 
Tauris  in  imitation  of  the  ancient  capital  of  Media. 
The  conjecture  has  been  entertained  that  there  were 
two  cities  called  Ecbatana  in  Media.  The  first  at  the 
foot  of  Alvand,  the  other  in  the  province  of  Atropa- 
tene  in  the  Koflen  Kuh,  at  a  place  now  called  Takte 
Sulaimon.  The  word  Ecbatana  is  understood  to  mean 
a  coffer  or  treasure-house,  and  hence  might  be  applied 
to  any  place  in  which  the  royal  treasures  and  records 
were  kept.  The  decree  of  Cyrus  ordering  the  re¬ 
building  of  the  temple  in  Jerusalem  was  found  at 
“  Achmetha 1  in  the  palace  that  is  in  the  province  of 

1  Book  of  Ezra,  vi.  2. 


9 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vn. 


13° 

the  Medes.”  The  word  Achmetha  is  also  understood 
to  mean  a  treasure  house,  and  is  believed  to  be  iden¬ 
tical  with  Ecbatana. 

The  name  Ramadan  seems  to  have  come  from  the 
Arab  tribe  of  that  name,  whose  princes  ruled  over 
Mesopotamia  and  adjacent  regions  in  the  decline  of 
the  power  of  the  Abasides  a.  d.  933“ I055-  The 
city  was  taken  by  Timour  near  the  close  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  first  Shah  of  the  Kajar 
dynasty  completed  the  ruin  of  whatever  remained  of 
former  improvements  and  greatness.  On  the  east  of 
the  present  city  there  is  a  high  hill,  which  was  for¬ 
tified.  It  may  have  been  the  site  of  a  citadel.  In 
the  streets  of  the  city  are  to  be  seen  the  fragments 
of  columns  and  polished  capitals. 

Old  coins  are  to  be  found  in  the  largest  quantities 
in  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  or  more  south  of  the 
city,  in  what  are  now  cultivated  fields.  The  land  is 
leased  in  small  parcels  by  the  authorities,  with  the 
privilege  of  excavating  and  washing  the  earth  for 
coins.  The  pieces  most  commonly  found  are  Alex¬ 
andrian,  Arsacidse,  and  Sassanian.  There  is  good 
reason  to  believe  that  the  ancient  palace  and  treasury 
were  situated  on  a  hill  just  west  of  the  coin  fields, 
whence  it  is  probable  the  coins  have  been  carried  by 
the  rains  of  many  centuries.  Near  this  point  there  is 
an  immense  stone  hewn  to  represent  a  couching  lion. 
It  is  the  only  object  of  the  kind  to  be  seen  in  that 
vicinity. 


VII.] 


HAMADAN. 


I3i 


In  and  near  the  city  there  are  subterranean  water 
courses  constructed  of  stone,  and  evidently  of  ancient 
construction.  On  the  rocks  of  Alvand  there  are  in¬ 
scriptions.  I  rode  well  up  the  mountain  side  to  see 
these.  They  are  called  Namal,  and  consist  of  two 
tablets  in  the  wedge-shaped  character.  It  is  re¬ 
ported  by  natives  that  there  are  many  subterranean 
channels  and  water  courses.  I  went  to  the  tomb  of 
the  distinguished  physician,  Avicinna.  The  structure 
is  the  usual  tower-shaped  building  of  the  old  mau¬ 
soleums,  and  has  two  stories,  with  a  dome  over  the 
top  of  the  tower.  An  opening  in  the  side  of  the  crypt 
revealed  a  small  dark  passage  which  was  said  to  con¬ 
nect  with  other  passages ;  but  which  may  have  been  the 
tomb  of  the  person  for  whom  the  building  was  erected. 
The  structure  receives  no  attention  and  is  falling  to  ruin. 
The  population  of  Hamadan  has  been  reduced  very 
much  by  the  famine  and  cholera,  and  as  much  by  the 
flight  of  the  people,  probably,  as  by  death  from  the 
other  causes.  It  was  conjectured  that  at  this  time,  the 
city  did  not  contain  more  than  ten  or  fifteen  thousand 
souls.  There  are  thirty  families  of  Armenians.  The 
Jews  claim  twenty-five  hundred  to  three  thousand 
souls.  The  balance  of  the  population  is  Mohammedan. 
The  condition  of  the  Jews  and  Armenians  in  this 
city  differs  in  no  essentials  from  that  of  their  co-re¬ 
ligionists  in  other  places  of  Persia.  Their  chief  occu¬ 
pation  is  the  manufacture  of  wine  and  arak.  Many 
of  the  Jews  are  physicians,  and  all,  both  Armenians 


132 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vii. 


and  Jews,  are  traders.  The  Armenians  of  Shevarin 
are  occupied  with  agriculture. 

The  Jews  drive  a  profitable  business  in  what  is 
called  a  Falgeer  Khanah.  It  is  a  place  in  which 
prayers  are  repeated,  and  verses  from  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment  and  from  the  Talmud  and  other  books,  are  writ¬ 
ten  for  the  recovery  of  the  sick  and  the  cure  of  steril¬ 
ity.  The  scripture  passages  are  written  on  bits  of 
parchment  or  paper,  and  are  worn  as  amulets  to  cure 
disease,  to  keep  off  evil  spirits,  and  to  give  good 
fortune. 

The  Armenians  perceived  that  this  enterprise  of  the 
Jews  was  a  paying  concern,  and  they  therefore  fol¬ 
lowed  the  example,  by  starting  a  similar  institution 
which  they  called  a  kashish  khanah,  or  priest’s 
house.  If  the  Old  Testament  were  so  efficacious, 
the  New  Testament  might  be  thought  even  more  effect¬ 
ual  in  healing.  The  prayers  were  written  by  an  Ar¬ 
menian,  and  sold  for  a  price.  The  house  was  largely 
patronized.  The  patrons  were  chiefly  Mohammedans 
and  females.  The  revenue  of  the  house  became  large, 
and  the  Mohammedan  authorities  put  a  heavy  tax 
upon  it.  They  claimed  that  the  practices  resorted  to 
were  a  species  of  witchcraft,  which  they  consider  to 
be  sinful ;  but  as  there  was  a  chance  to  make  money 
out  of  it,  they  levied  a  tax  instead  of  suppressing  the 
concern. 

In  early  years  the  Armenian  colony  numbered  one 
hundred  families,  and  the  tax  of  the  whole  community 


VII.]  SHRINE  OF  ESTHER  AND  MORDECAI.  133 

was  assessed  at  two  hundred  tomans.  In  the  course 
of  years  the  colony  had  been  reduced  to  thirty  families, 
yet  the  same  assessment  was  made.  The  Armenians 
becoming  Protestants,  were  persuaded  to  abandon  the 
prayer-house,  but  the  authorities  still  demanded  the 
tax  of  former  years.  It  was  not  until  several  years 
later  than  my  visit,  that  the  kashish  khanah  was 
finally  suppressed  and  the  tax  remitted.  The  heavy 
tax  was  the  ostensible  excuse  for  opening  the  prayer- 
house,  but  it  appears  to  have  been  an  occasion  for  in¬ 
creasing  the  tax. 

The  Jewish  colony  here  is  of  very  ancient  origin. 
Distinct  mention  is  made  in  the  Apocryphal  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  of  Jews  in  this  city  and  Raghes. 
The  shrine  of  Esther  and  Mordecai  is  near  the  cen¬ 
tre  of  the  city.  The  two  graves  are  side  by  side  and 
covered  by  zerahs  of  carved  wood.  Upon  these  there 
is  an  inscription  in  Hebrew.  The  tombs  are  under  a 
dome  of  burned  and  red  brick.  The  whole  building 
is  of  most  humble  construction,  and  the  brick  are 
evidently  not  of  the  most  ancient  size  and  make. 
When  Tamour  took  the  city,  the  building  then  stand¬ 
ing  was  destroyed.  The  present  structure  was  built  at 
a  later  date. 

At  this  time  there  was  one  Armenian  priest  in  Ra¬ 
madan.  The  priesthood  had  descended  from  father  to 
son  during  several  generations.  The  Nestorian  preacher 
of  the  Protestants  had  returned  to  Oroomiah,  and  the 
priest  yet  performed  the  service  of  the  Armenian  Church 


134 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vii. 


in  the  old  church  building  composed  of  sun-dried  brick. 
A  young  Armenian  taught  a  school  in  the  interests  of 
the  Protestants.  Many  of  this  people  were  favourably 
disposed  to  the  evangelical  sentiments,  though  as  yet 
no  church  had  been  organized. 

The  suffering  occasioned  by  the  famine  in  the  city 
had  been  very  great.  The  Jews  had  received  aid  from 
their  co-religionists  in  London.  The  Armenians  had 
been  aided  by  funds  sent  from  London  and  from  the 
United  States,  so  that  none  of  them  died  of  hunger. 
The  great  majority  of  the  sufferers  were  Mohammed¬ 
ans,  so  numerous  as  to  make  any  very  efficient  help  by 
foreigners  quite  impossible.  The  famine  had  now  ceased, 
as  compared  with  the  devastation  occasioned  in  previous 
months,  yet  the  number  of  daily  deaths  from  this  cause 
was  from  twenty-five  to  thirty.  The  number  of  bodies 
baptized  for  burial  during  the  winter,  was  reported  to 
be  twenty-five  thousand,  which  seems  incredible.  If 
the  report  be  discounted  by  one-half  it  will  probably  be 
less  than  the  fact,  which  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain. 
Women  and  children  were  now  seen  by  me,  in  the 
street  gathering  the  bones  of  dead  animals,  which  they 
crushed  for  the  marrow  to  be  extracted.  They  were 
searching  the  refuse  and  sweepings  of  the  shops  for  a 
crumb  which  might  possibly  be  found.  In  an  open 
space  near  the  stream  which  flows  through  the  town, 
the  sick  and  famishing  lay  in  scores. 

The  city  has  no  important  manufactories.  Its  trade 
is  chiefly  local.  The  leather  made  here  is  considered 


VII.] 


TRADE  OF  RAMADAN. 


I3S 


the  best  in  Persia,  and  some  earthenware  manufactured 
in  this  place  is  taken  to  other  cities.  There  is  here  a 
telegraph  office  of  the  Persian  government,  and  of  the 
line  extending  from  Tehran  to  the  Turkish  border. 
This  line  was  the  first  constructed  in  Persia,  and  was 
built  by  the  British.  The  owners  transferred  their 
interest  to  the  Shah  on  the  construction  of  the  line 
from  the  Aras ;  and  the  Government  of  India  con¬ 
structed  a  line  from  Tehran  to  the  Persian  Gulf  at 
Bushire.  The  line  to  Hamadan  was  in  bad  condition. 
In  many  places  the  wires  lay  upon  the  ground.  In 
other  places  they  were  carelessly  hung  upon  a  nail 
driven  into  the  wooden  poles.  Yet  such  is  the  dry¬ 
ness  of  the  air  and  of  the  ground,  that  messages  could 
be  sent  over  the  lines. 

From  Hamadan  to  Oroomiah  there  are  two  routes ; 
one  by  way  of  Senah,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Ardalan ;  the  other  by  Bejar.  The  distance  is  reck¬ 
oned  at  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  days’  travel  by  caravan. 
There  is  a  chapar  from  Hamadan  to  Senah.  This 
fact  determined  our  route.  The  distance  is  some  four 
days’  travel. 

I  left  Hamadan  on  the  6th  of  July,  having  first 
made  two  starts  with  a  caravan ;  but  the  second  time 
the  chavidar  objected  to  the  loads,  and .  taking  them 
from  the  horses  said  that  he  must  have  extra  pay,  and 
started  for  the  bazaar,  expecting  that  we  would  come 
to  terms,  and  submit  to  the  extortion.  As  post-horses 
could  be  obtained  at  once,  we  lost  no  time  in  making 


1 36 


THE  LAND  OF  TILE  IMAMS. 


[vn. 


ready,  and  suffered  the  chavidar  to  depart  in  his  delusive 
hope.  Our  route  crossed  the  plain  of  Hamadan  to  the 
northwest.  Although  the  altitude  of  the  plain  is  not 
less  than  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  yet  the  heat 
of  the  day  was  intense,  so  that  we  rode  but  six  fara- 
sangs,  and  halted  for  the  night  at  Kamkase.  Our 
second  night  was  passed  with  the  Kurds  of  Chibook- 
lee.  We  entered  Senah  near  noon  of  the  third  day. 

The  entire  country  between  Hamadan  and  Senah  is 
very  high,  much  of  it  being  no  less  than  six  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea  level.  We  passed  two  ranges,  the 
summits  of  which  were  six  thousand  five  hundred, 
and  seven  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the  sea. 
Senah  is  situated  in  an  open  basin  in  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  The  city  is 
said  by  the  prince  governor  to  contain  twenty-five 
thousand  people.  But  I  should  say  that  it  could  not 
contain  half  that  number.  The  Jews  have  three  hun¬ 
dred  houses  and  the  Papal  Nestorians  eighty  families. 
A  Roman  Catholic  mission  has  flourished  a  long  time 
here,  conducted,  I  believe,  by  natives  of  the  country. 

The  governor  of  the  province,  Farhaud  Mirza,  re¬ 
sided  here.  He  is  a  cousin  of  the  Shah.  The  reputa¬ 
tion  of  this  man  in  the  province  was  such  as  to  impart 
confidence,  if  Persian  testimony  may  be  received.  It 
was  said  that  the  governor  had  suppressed  all  lawless¬ 
ness.  He  had  recently  taken  off  the  heads  of  several 
highwaymen,  and  a  man  might  now  openly  bear  on 
his  head  a  tray  of  gold  coins  from  Hamadan  to  Senah. 


VII.] 


SEN AI-L 


137 


At  the  hour  appointed  I  went  to  the  palace  of  the 
governor.-  The  buildings  appeared  to  me  to  be  very 
old  and  in  a  shabby  condition.  The  prince  is  a  man 
of  medium  stature  and  thin  features.  He  wore  a 
Cashmere  gown  and  slippers,  and  received  me  in  the 
porch  of  the  Berune.  Here  there  were  two  chairs, 
and  only  two.  One  was  occupied  by  the  prince.  I 
was  invited  to  take  the  other.  He  professed  great 
friendship  for  the  English  people  and  for  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  in  Oroomiah.  His  mirza  had  received  instruction 
in  the  English  language  from  some  of  the  missionaries 
in  that  city.  The  governor,  by  the  aid  of  this  man, 
had  composed  a  Persian-English  dictionary  which  had 
been  printed  at  a  Persian  press.  A  copy  of  the  book 
was  sent  to  me,  with  the  salams  of  the  prince,  on  the 
day  of  my  departure. 

The  governor  offered  an  escort  of  soldiers  which  I 
declined  ;  but  as  he  seemed  to  be  urgent  and  said  that 
he  could  not  be  responsible  for  my  safety  unless  I  took 
the  escort,  I  said  that  I  would  be  thankful  for  the 
services  of  one  soldier.  He  volunteered  to  give  me  a 
letter  to  the  governor  of  Sakis,  and  an  order  for  an 
escort  through  the  Kurdish  country.  The  only  dis¬ 
courtesy  which  I  received  from  the  natives  in  all  my 
journey,  was  during  the  few  days  in  which  this  man 
accompanied  us.  We  frequently  sent  him  on  to  obtain 
a  lodging-place  and  to  procure  food;  but  wherever  we 
went  the  people  were  disposed  to  resist  his  demands, 
which  were  uniformly  made  in  an  insolent  and  arbitrary 


138 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[vir. 


manner.  The  Kurds  have  a  strong  antipathy  toward 
the  Persian  soldier,  for  the  reason,  I  suppose,  that  the 
soldiers  take  whatever  they  desire  without  giving  any 
compensation.  The  soldier  attributed  the  insolence 
of  the  people  to  the  fact  that  we  had  but  one  soldier ; 
were  there  several  of  us,  he  said,  the  Kurds  would  be 
polite  enough. 

There  is  no  post  north  of  Senah.  I  therefore  pur¬ 
chased  horses  here  in  order  to  travel  by  marches. 
Our  route  lay  across  the  skirt  of  the  mountains  to 
Sakis  and  Souj  Bolak.  The  distance  from  Senah  to 
Sakis  is  twenty-four  farasangs.  There  is  little  or  no 
change  in  the  general  aspect  of  the  country  until  one 
reaches  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Oroomiah.  The  road 
crosses  a  succession  of  mountains  and  ravines  with 
little  variation.  The  ridges  have  an  elevation  of  from 
five  thousand  to  six  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea. 

We  left  Senah  an  hour  before  sunset.  After  we 
had  ridden  some  two  hours  the  soldier  said  that  we 
must  be  near  the  station,  and  that  he  would  go  on  and 
secure  a  lodging-place  for  us.  It  was  now  night,  but 
a  clear  moonlight  disclosed  the  road.  The  soldier  soon 
passed  out  of  sight.  The  roughness  of  the  way  pre¬ 
vented  fast  riding.  In  going  up  a  steep  hill  one  of  the 
loads  fell  off  the  horse,  and  the  two  men  were  detained 
with  it  in  re-loading.  I  rode  on  slowly  in  advance. 
I  was  confident  the  men  were  following.  The  march 
was  kept  up  in  this  order  for  some  time.  We  now 


VII.] 


DEPARTURE  FROM  SENAH. 


139 


heard  a  shout  which  we  answered,  supposing  that  the 
soldier  had  found  the  village,  and  was  returning  to  us. 

1  In  descending  a  ravine  my  horse  started  and  some 
object  passed  rapidly  across  my  track,  but  the  light 
was  not  clear  enough  to  enable  one  to  distinguish  an 
object  at  any  considerable  distance.  We  heard  another 
shout,  which  was  answered  by  all  our  party,  and  all 
hurried  on,  especially  the  men  in  the  rear,  who  seemed 
to  understand  the  situation.  We  soon  came  upon  the 
escort.  He  was  holding  a  man  whom  all  the  men  fell 
to  beating.  The  guard  had  been  riding  in  advance, 
when  two  men  sprang  up  in  the  way ;  one  seized  the 
bridle  of  his  horse,  and  the  other  attempted  to  knock 
him  off  with  a  club.  The  blow  was  parried  by  the 
soldier.  His  shout  and  our  answer  caused  one  of  the 
men  to  flee.  The  other  was  immediately  seized  by  the 
guard,  and  held  until  we  came  up.  All  the  men 
began  to  beat  the  supposed  highwayman,  when  the 
story  had  been  briefly  told  by  the  soldier,  and  they 
might  have  killed  or  greatly  injured  him  had  I  not 
interposed.  The  man  was  now  conducted  to  the 
station.  It  was  near  midnight  when  we  entered  the 
town,  a  cluster  of  hovels  inhabited  by  Kurds.  The 
highwayman  was  committed  to  the  kathoda  of  the 
village  to  be  conducted  to  the  governor  at  Senah. 

The  soldier  was  very  anxious  that  I  should  report 
his  statements  as  facts,  assuring  me  that  if  I  would  do 
so,  the  man  would  certainly  be  punished  by  the  loss 
of  a  hand  or  of  an  eye.  But  as  I  had  no  confidence 


I4° 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vii. 


in  the  soldier,  I  would  not  run  the  risk  of  doing 
a  wrong  to  the  man. 

I  shall  not  attempt  any  particular  account  of  the 
villages  and  country  between  Senah  and  Oroomiah. 
Sakis  and  Souj  Bolak  are  the  only  towns  of  importance, 
and  these  are  no  more  than  large  villages.  Quite  all 
the  other  places  are  small  clusters  of  wretched  hovels, 
inhabited  in  common  by  human  beings,  flocks  of  sheep 
and  herds  of  cattle;  for  the  flocks  share  with  the  Kurds, 
at  night,  the  security  of  the  village.  Many  of  the 
people,  at  this  season,  live  in  tents,  and  some  of  the 
villages  are  quite  deserted.  The  inhabitants  are  Kurds. 
Quite  all  the  men  are  armed  at  all  times  with  a  belt 
of  pistols  and  knives,  and  there  is  a  marked  contrast 
between  the  fierce  aspect  of  these  people,  and  the 
courteous  bearing  of  the  Persian  peasants. 

Sakis  is  a  town  of  one  thousand  houses.  Of  these 
fifty  families  are  Jews,  a  few  are  Afghans,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  people  are  Kurds.  Having  a  letter 
to  the  governor  I  rode  to  his  palace.  He  is  a  Kurd, 
and  a  man,  apparently,  about  sixty  years  of  age.  He 
was  courteous,  and  when  I  left,  gave  me  a  letter  to  the 
Kurdish  Sheik  in  the  town  of  Saru,  requiring  him  to 
furnish  a  guard.  At  Saru  we  found  a  refreshing  repast 
in  readiness  for  us,  of  broiled  chicken,  and  the  best 
food  I  had  eaten  since  leaving  Tehran.  Some  twenty 
Kurds  gathered  about  us,  all  of  them  being  armed  after 
the  fashion  of  the  country.  The  four  sons  of  the  Sheik 
came  to  meet  us.  They  wore  long  and  flowing  robes 


vn.] 


SOUJ  BOLAK. 


141 

of  white  silk,  and  were  cleanly  and  fair  faced.  On 
leaving  Saru  a  Kurd  mounted  on  a  splendid  horse, 
and  armed  with  a  spear  and  shield,  led  the  way  to  the 
next  station. 

Souj  Bolak  is  a  much  larger  town  than  Sakis.  The 
houses  paying  taxes  were  said  to  be  one  thousand. 
The  Jews  here  number  seventy  families.  We  obtained 
rooms  in  the  house  of  a  Jew.  He  lived  in  the  best 
house  in  the  town,  for  which  luxury,  however,  he  had 
been  compelled  to  pay  twice.  When  he  had  completed 
the  building,  the  governor  sent  word  to  him  that  a 
person  who  was  able  to  construct  so  good  a  house 
must  have  plenty  of  money,  and  therefore  must  pay 
the  governor  for  it,  or  lose  his  property.  In  order  to 
avoid  trouble  with  this  minister  of  justice,  the  Jew  sent 
to  the  governor  a  present  of  three  hundred  tomans,  a 
sum  equivalent  to  about  six  hundred  dollars. 

Leaving  Souj  Bolak  we  crossed  the  very  fertile  plain 
of  Sulduz.  The  people  were  now  busy  with  the  har¬ 
vest.  From  the  Sulduz  to  the  plain  of  the  Ravanduz 
River,  the  road  runs  near  the  shore  of  Lake  Oroomiah. 
A  good  part  of  the  way  is  over  a  barren  and  dreary 
region,  utterly  without  habitation,  except  the  tents  of 
a  few  migratory  Kurds.  We  rode  the  greater  part  of 
the  day  and  night.  As  we  came  after  midnight  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  first  villages  of  the  Ravanduz,  we  turned 
aside,  and  lay  down  under  some  trees  by  the  sea,  the 
waters  of  which  now  shone  as  a  mirror,  in  the  bright 
moonlight.  We  preferred  the  scene  without  to  the 


142 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vn. 


close  and  dreary  room  of  a  mud  hovel.  On  the  18th 
of  July  we  entered  the  gate  of  the  mission  premises  at 
Seir,  and  completed  the  journey  of  two  hundred  and 
sixty-six  farasangs,  or  ten  hundred  and  sixty-four 
miles.  By  my  record  of  distances  there  is  less  than  a 
farasang’s  difference  in  the  distance  to  Tehran  by  way 
of  Tabriz  and  by  way  of  Hamadan.  It  is  not  probable, 
however,  that  the  reckoning  of  any  two  travellers 
would  be  the  same  here ;  since  they  would  be  depend¬ 
ent  upon  the  report  of  natives  as  to  the  length  of  the 
stages  if  reckoned  in  farasangs  ;  and  if  the  reckoning 
were  made  in  hours,  there  might  be  a  discrepancy 
occasioned  by  different  fates  of  travel. 

In  this  journey  I  had  my  first  experience  with  the 
sand-fly,  which  infests  all  parts  of  Persia.  It  is  a  gnat 
no  larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin  ;  of  a  green  and  white 
color,  turning  to  black  as  the  season  advances.  It  is 
so  small  that  only  the  finest  screens  will  give  protec¬ 
tion  from  it.  The  hottest  season  seems  to  be  most 
congenial  to  this  insect,  and  it  shuns  a  cool  current  of 
air.  The  bite  of  these  insects  is  especially  troublesome 
to  foreigners  who  have  not  been  inoculated  with  the 
virus,  as  the  bite  is  followed  with  festers.  I  had  my 
share  of  the  attentions  of  these  pests.  The  pendent 
position  of  the  feet  in  riding,  and  the  irritation,  had 
aggravated  the  festers  on  my  ankles,  so  that  for  several 
weeks  I  was  unable  to  ride  or  walk. 

A  few  weeks  after  my  return,  Mr.  Stocking,  with  his 
wife  and  Miss  Cochrane,  left  Oroomiah  on  a  tour  in 


VII.] 


DEPARTURE  FOR  TEHRAN. 


H3 


the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  Their  journey  forms  a 
sad  episode  in  the  history  of  the  American  Mission. 
From  the  cool  regions  of  the  mountains  the  party 
descended  to  the  burning  plain  of  Mosul  in  the  month 
of  September.  Mrs.  Stocking  fell  ill.  In  the  course 
of  three  days  it  was  found  to  be  necessary  to  retreat 
to  the  mountains.  Mr.  Stocking  was  prostrated  by 
sunstroke.  On  the  third  day  from  Mosul,  Mrs.  Stock¬ 
ing  was  too  feeble  to  proceed.  Their  tent  was  pitched 
near  Jeseriah.  Here  Mrs.  Stocking  died,  on  Sabbath 
morning,  September  22d.  The  tent  was  removed  and 
the  interment  made  where  she  had  expired.  The  other 
members  of  the  party  were  detained  by  illness,  and 
returned  to  Oroomiah  in  October. 

I  left  Oroomiah  with  my  family  for  Tehran,  on  the 
second  day  of  November,  going  by  way  of  Tabriz  and 
the  route  I  have  described.  In  this  long  journey  by 
marches  of  twenty-seven  days,  no  very  serious  diffi¬ 
culties  were  encountered,  and  no  events  occurred  more 
alarming  than  the  appearance  of  a  large  leopard  cross¬ 
ing  our  road  and  trotting  leisurely  over  the  plain ;  a 
snowstorm  on  a  mountain-pass,  and  frequent  threats  of 
the  chavidars  to  kill  the  Christian  Persians  who  served 
us  by  the  way.  The  man  who  led  the  horse  of  the 
taktravan  was  most  obnoxious  to  the  muleteer.  The 
oft-repeated  threat  finally  ended  in  one  of  the  chavidars 
drawing  a  long  knife  and  making  a  rush  for  the  man ; 
but  an  unintentional  gesture  of  one  of  my  hands  toward 
a  revolver  which  was  fastened  to  the  bow  of  my  saddle 


144 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vil. 


was  seriously  interpreted  by  the  chavidar,  and  he  in¬ 
stantly  threw  up  both  hands,  crying  for  mercy,  and 
promised  never  to  repeat  the  threat.  The  remainder 
of  the  journey  was  made  in  peace  between  Mussul¬ 
mans  and  Christians.  Leaving  the  chapar  route  at 
Meanjub  we  took  the  higher  road  to  Kend,  and  entered 
Tehran  by  the  Asp  Davan  gate  on  the  29th  of  Novem¬ 
ber,  1872,  the  lady  of  the  party  thus  having  the  ques¬ 
tionable  honour  of  being  the  first  American  woman  to 
enter  the  capital  of  Persia. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Journey  to  Ispahan — General  Features  of  the  Country — Kanaragird — 
City  of  Koom — The  Mausoleum  of  Fatimah — Sinsin — Kashan — Plain 
of  Ispahan — Entrance  to  the  City — Ride  toward  Julfah — The  Zandah 
Rud — Antiquity  of  Ispahan — Persian  History — Population — Origin 
of  the  Colony  of  Jews — Ruins — Bridges — Avenues — Maidone  Shah — 
Madrassahe  Shah — Cheh&r  Bogh — Chehil  Sutun — Shaking  Minarets — 
The  River — Julfah — Character  of  the  Colony — Relation  to  the  Sufee 
Kings — The  Ecclesiastical  Establishment — The  Archbishop — Diocese 
and  Revenues — Roman  Catholic  Mission — Famine — Aid  to  Sufferers 
— Mr.  Bruce — His  Mission — Business  of  the  Armenians — Trade  of 
Ispahan — The  Governor — The  Sheik  al  Islam — Favourable  Situation 
— Ruined  State  of  Ispahan  and  Julfah. 

In  the  month  of  April,  and  in  company  with  Mr. 
Coan  of  Oroomiah,  I  went  by  chapar  from  Tehran  to 
Ispahan.  The  latter  city  is  south  of  the  former,  and 
distant  from  it  seventy-one  farasangs,  or  about  two 
hundred  and  eighty-four  miles.  The  caravan  track 
here,  as  in  other  places  of  Persia,  is  the  only  highway. 
The  telegraph  wires  of  the  government  of  India’s  line 
follow  this  route. 

The  highway  crosses  the  plain  of  Tehran  toward  the 
south,  and  runs  along  the  western  side  of  the  great 
desert  of  Khorasan.  It  makes  many  detours  to  avoid 
the  depths  of  the  desert,  and  crosses  many  mountain 

i45 


10 


146 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[viii. 


ridges  which  lie  between  the  principal  ranges  of  the 
Elburz  and  Zagros.  The  general  features  of  the  coun¬ 
try  along  this  route  differ  in  no  essential  aspect  from 
what  is  to  be  seen  in  other  parts  of  Persia,  except  the 
stretches  of  desert  on  the  east  appear  to  be  more 
extended  than  those  desert  plains  which  are  seen  in 
other  places.  Barren  plain  and  mountain  succeed  one 
another  in  monotonous  alternation.  On  the  west, 
range  after  range  of  mountains,  separated  often  by  wide 
valleys  where  neither  the  habitation  of  men  nor  the 
shadow  of  a  tree  is  to  be  seen.  On  the  east  the  desert 
is  apparently  without  limit.  Between  the  mountain 
ridges  which  run  into  it  are  large  ponds,  and  small 
lakes  formed  by  the  streams  of  water  flowing  from  the 
mountains  in  the  winter  and  spring  seasons.  The 
greater  part  of  these  ponds  are  quite  dry  in  the  sum¬ 
mer  time.  The  ground  once  occupied  by  them  is  then 
covered  with  a  white  saline  deposit.  In  the  play  of 
the  mirage  they  have  the  aspect  of  lakes  bordered 
with  reeds  and  trees.  Crossing  the  plain  of  Tehran 
for  a  distance  of  four  farasangs,  the  road  ascends  a 
ridge  whence  we  could  see  the  general  course  of  the 
highway  in  a  good  part  of  the  journey. 

Between  Tehran  and  Ispahan  there  are  four  small 
rivers.  The  Karaj  is  crossed  near  the  village  of  Kanar- 
agird  about  seven  farasangs  from  Tehran.  The  Kirche 
Rud  rises  near  Sultaneah.  It  is  crossed  by  a  good 
bridge  about  four  miles  southwest  of  Kanaragird.  The 
Room  River  and  the  Shore  unite  near  the  bridge  called 


VIII.] 


KANARAGIRD. 


147 


Poole  Daloik,  sixteen  miles  northeastward  of  the  city 
of  Koom.  These  streams  were  now  broad  torrents 
pouring  their  waters  into  the  desert. 

Kanaragird  is  a  small  village  of  huts,  and  Hose 
Sultan,  or  the  Reservoir  of  the  King,  as  the  name  sig¬ 
nifies,  is  a  caravansary  and  cistern  built  for  the  purpose 
of  supplying  travellers  with  a  place  of  rest  and  with  a 
supply  of  fresh  water.  The  second  stage  from  Tehran 
is  over  a  plateau,  and  from  Kanaragird  to  Hose  Sultan. 
Four  miles  beyond  the  bridge  of  the  Kirche  Rud  we 
entered  the  valley  called  the  Valley  of  the  Angel  of 
Death,  Malak  al  Mote.  It  is,  so  named  from  the 
absence  of  verdure,  and  the  appearance  of  desolation 
which  it  has ;  but  this  aspect  is  no  more  a  character¬ 
istic  of  this  place  than  it  is  of  many  other  regions  of 
this  country.  The  valley  is  believed  by  the  super¬ 
stitious  natives  to  be  the  haunt  of  ghouls  and  satyrs. 
It  is  related  that  the  satyrs  beset  the  traveller  by  night 
and  slay  him  in  the  way.  On  my  expressing  doubt 
of  the  truthfulness  of  these  legends  to  the  chapar  sha- 
gird,  and  in  answer  to  my  question,  he  said  that  the 
satyrs  are  creatures  having  the  body  and  feet  of  men 
with  the  head  of  birds  and  beasts.  They  surround  the 
traveller  and  begin  to  lick  his  feet  with  their  tongue. 
If  the  spell  is  not  broken  they  devour  him.  The  king, 
he  said,  once  desired  to  know  the  truth  if  the  valley 
were  really  haunted.  He  therefore  sent  many  persons 
to  sleep  in  this  place ;  but  no  one  dared  to  remain,  for 
they  heard  such  sounds  and  saw  such  forms  as  caused 


148 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [viii. 

- \ — — — - 

them  to  flee  in  haste.  At  last  a  mullah  offered  to 
sleep  in  the  valley.  He  saw  many  thousands  of  satyrs, 
for  the  air  was  full  of  them ;  but  as  he  was  an  holy 
man  they  did  him  no  harm. 

We  rode  seven  farasangs  from  Hose  Sultan  to  Poole 
Dal  oik,  the  Bridge  of  the  Barber.  This  is  the  name 
given  to  a  caravansary  and  chapar  khanah  near  the 
bridge  of  the  barber.  Thence  the  road  follows  the 
margin  of  the  Koom.  The  word  koom  means  sand. 

o 

The  city  of  that  name  is  near  one  hundred  miles  from 
Tehran.  It  is  a  sacred  city,  owing  to  the  shrines  erected 
here.  De  Anville  supposes  Koom  to  occupy  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Choana  of  Ptolemy.  There  was  a  city 
here  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the 
armies  of  the  first  Khalafahs.  Very  little  is  known, 
however,  of  the  early  history  of  the  place.  The  author 
of  Bahr  al  Ansab  records  that  twenty-three  Sayeds  who 
fled  to  Koom  were  here  put  to  death  by  the  enemies 
of  the  house  of  Ale.  The  particular  sacredness  of  the 
place  is  derived  from  the  remains  of  Fatimah,  the  sister 
of  Imam  Reza.  The  popular  tradition  is  that  this  lady 
was  on  her  journey  to  the  city  of  Tus,  whither  she  was 
going  to  visit  Reza.  On  arriving  at  Koom  she  per¬ 
ceived  the  city  to  be  in  mourning,  and  on  inquiring 
after  the  cause,  learned  that  the  popular  demonstration 
was  occasioned  by  the  death  of  Reza.  The  sad  tidings 
caused  her  to  delay  in  Koom,  where  she  sickened  and 
died  of  grief.  A  mausoleum  was  early  constructed 
over  her  grave,  but  it  was  a  very  humble  building. 


VIII.] 


CITY  OF  ROOM. 


149 


By  the  order  of  Shah  Abas  the  structure  was  enlarged 
and  ornamented.  The  Sufee  kings  created  the  fame 
and  wealth  of  the  shrine.  The  sword  of  Abas  hangs 
in  the  mosque.  Sufee  the  First  and  Abas  the  Second 
were  here  buried.  Fattah  Ale  Shah  and  Mohammed 
Shah  are  interred  within  the  sacred  inclosure ;  also  the 
wife  of  the  latter,  who  died  in  1873.  To  this  queen  is 
attributed  the  honour  of  having  caused  the  dome  of  the 
mosque  of  Fatimah  to  be  covered  with  gold  plate. 
The  dead  are  brought  from  the  country  adjacent  to  be 
interred  in  the  hallowed  ground  of  the  city.  ICoom  is 
second  in  sanctity  to  the  city  of  Mashhad  only.  The 
population  of  the  city  is  estimated  to  be  no  more 
than  ten  thousand  souls.  The  place  was  in  former 
years  much  more  populous  than  now.  The  wide 
area  covered  with  ruins  of  houses  on  the  east  of  the 
present  site  bears  testimony  to  the  decline  of  the  city. 
The  governor  of  the  district  resides  in  Koom.  There 
is  also  a  superintendent  of  the  shrines  and  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  mullahs.  We  saw  very  many  pilgrims  going  to 
the  shrine.  The  greater  part  of  these  were  women. 

Passangoon  is  a  small  village  where  post-horses  are 
kept.  It  is  four  farasangs  southward  from  Koom. 
Sin  Sin,  seven  farasangs  beyond  this,  is  the  name  of  a 
chapar  khanah  near  the  plain  of  Kasdan.  Kashan  is 
seventeen  farasangs  distant  from  Koom.  It  is  situ¬ 
ated  on  a  low.  and  flat  plain.  The  altitude  of  the 
city  is  about  two  thousand  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  ocean.  It  is  one  of  the  cities  mentioned  as  having 


150  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [vm. 

furnished  its  contingent  at  the  battle  of  Kadesah,  a.  d. 
636.  Since  the  Mohammedan  conquest  it  has  been  an 
important  place,  and  at  all  times  has  been  noted  for 
the  heat  of  its  climate,  for  the  size  and  venom  of  its 
black  scorpions,  the  manufacture  of  silk,  copperware, 
earthenware,  and  porcelain.  It  is  said  to  be  as  large  a 
city  as  Shiraz,  though  less  in  ruins.  The  founding  of 
the  city  has,  without  reason,  been  ascribed  to  Zobaide, 
wife  of  Haroun  al  Rasheed.  The  potteries  of  this  city 
were  noted  for  a  sort  of  faience  and  glazed  ware 
which  received  the  name  kashee.  The  term  was  used 
in  time,  to  denote  all  similar  ware,  whether  made  in 
Kashan  or  in  other  places.  The  fact  appears  to  be 
that  the  wares  were  made  in  several  villages  near 
Kashan,  of  which  Gulpaigon  is  one  of  the  most  noted. 

The  Jews  of  Kashan  number  three  hundred  houses. 
The  palace  of  Feen  is  noted  as  the  place  where  Mirza 
Tagee,  the  chief  minister  of  the  Shah,  was  confined 
and  put  to  death.  The  prince  was  murdered  in  the 
bath. 

From  Kashan  the  chapar  road  ascends  the  Koh 
Rud  pass.  The  mountain  is  a  spur  extending  from 
the  main  range  into  the  desert  a  short  distance.  The 
more  precipitous  ascent  may  be  avoided  by  a  more 
circuitous  route,  .The  pass  is  the  only  high  and  diffi¬ 
cult  ascent  between  Tehran  and  Ispahan.  After  riding 
four  farasangs  beyond  Kashan  we  came  to  a  reservoir 
of  water,  built  for  the  water  supply  of  the  city.  It  is 
formed  by  the  construction  of  a  dam  across  a  deep 


VIII.]  RIDE  TO  WARD  JULFAH.  15 1 

gorge  in  the  mountain.  The  chapar  station  of  Koh 
Rud  is  within  about  three  or  four  miles  of  the  summit. 
The  ascent  to  the  village  was  long  and  tedious.  The 
darkness  and  the  cold  of  the  night  may  have  made 
the  journey  to  seem  longer  than  it  might  have 
appeared  to  be  in  the  day.  The  only  room  to  be 
had  in  the  chapar  khanah  was  one  well  filled  with 
wheat.  The  two  other  rooms  had  been  taken  posses¬ 
sion  of  by  the  governor  of  Ispahan.  He  caused  one 
of  the  rooms  to  be  vacated.  As  the  chimney  was  de¬ 
fective,  the  smoke  of  the  wood-fire  filled  the  room,  and 
our  only  resource  was  to  sit  on  rugs  underneath  the 
denser  clouds  of  smoke.  The  bright  light  of  the  fire 
gleamed  through  the  dense  columns  of  smoke  as  a 
winter  sun  shines  through  a  London  fog. 

The  summit  of  the  pass  is  about  seven  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea.  Deep  banks  of  snow  were  yet  in 
the  highway.  The  distance  from  Kashan  to  Ispahan 
is  twenty-nine  farasangs.  Bedek,  Moorchakhare,  and 
Gaz,  are  each  six  farasangs  apart,  and  are  miserable 
villages.  The  second  is  noted  for  the  battle  fought 
in  its  vicinity  between  the  army  of  Nadir  Shah  and 
the  forces  of  Ashraf  the  Afghan.  From  the  Koh  Rud 
the  road  descends  to  the  plain  of  Ispahan.  We  rode 
near  five  farasangs  over  a  level  plain  before  reaching 
the  city.  No  cultivation  was  visible  until  within  eight 
miles  of  the  city  gate.  There  is  every  indication  that 
in  former  times  the  entire  plain  was  well  tilled. 

It  was  late  at  night  when  we  rode  up  to  the  gate. 


152 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[viii. 


The  gate  was  locked,  and  the  key  had  been  taken 
away;  but  the  chapar  shagird  conducted  us  to  a 
place  where  the  wall  was  broken  down,  and  we  had 
no  great  difficulty  in  finding  our  way  to  the  post 
house.  Leaving  the  chapar  khanah,  we  passed  through 
many  ruined  bazaars  and  came  to  the  Zandah  Rud, 
which  we  crossed  on  a  massive  bridge,  constructed  of 
brick  and  stone.  The  river  was  now  a  broad  and  furi¬ 
ous  torrent,  having  been  swollen  by  the  spring  floods 
so  that  the  main  channel  was  full.  The  chapar  sha¬ 
gird  conducted  us  by  the  usual  road  which  follows 
the  margin  of  the  river.  We  came  to  a  place  where 
the  water  covered  the  road.  The  shagird  was  about 
to  ride  into  the  water,  but,  as  the  current  was  strong, 
and  the  water  appeared  to  be  deep,  I  recalled  him. 
He  said  that  he  knew  no  other  road.  We  therefore 
returned  to  the  post  house,  where  we  remained  during 
the  balance  of  the  night.  In  the  morning  we  experi¬ 
enced  no  difficulty  in  finding  the  now  frequented  road 
to  Julfah,  and  we  learned  that  the  road  taken  by  us 
on  the  previous  night  was  impassable,  being  covered 
in  places  by  water  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  deep. 

Much  has  been  written  by  Persian  writers  concern- 
ing  the  antiquity  of  Ispahan.  The  founding  of  the 
city  is,  by  them,  referred  to  the  fabulous  eras  of 
Hushang,  Tahmoors  and  Gemsheed.  Kai  Kobad,  of 
the  Kaianian  dynasty,  or  that  of  Cyrus,  is  said  to 
have  made  the  place  his  capital.  He  is  believed,  by 
some,  to  have  been  the  same  as  the  Dejoces  of  the 


VIII.] 


ISPAHAN— ANTIQUITY  OF 


153 


Greek  writers.  The  building  of  Ispahan  is  believed 
to  have  preceded  the  construction  of  Ecbatana.  In 
the  enlargement  and  building  by  Kai  Kobad>  four  vil¬ 
lages  were  united  in  one  city.  The  city  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  by  the  name  Ispadana. 

The  Emperor  Heracleus  marched  as  far  as  to  Ispa¬ 
han.  The  city  is  said  to  have  made  a  brave  resist¬ 
ance  against  the  Saracens.  It  figured  as  the  seat  of 
royalty  in  the  reign  of  A1  Buyah,  who  seized  the 
place  a.  d.  933.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Shah 
Abas,  and  continued  to  be  the  capital  city  during  the 
reign  of  the  Sufee  Shahs.  It  was  in  the  time  of  the 
kings  of  this  dynasty  that  the  city  became  most  known 
in  modern  times.  , 

The  population  of  the  city  in  the  times  of  the 
Sufees  has  been  variously  stated  at  from  five  hundred 
thousand  to  one  million  souls.  Chardin,  who  entered 
Ispahan  two  hundred  years  ago,1  says  that  it  contained 
twenty-nine  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-nine 
houses.  It  could  not  have  possessed,  therefore, 
more  than  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  souls 
at  that  time.  Olivier  reckons  the  population  to  be 
two  hundred  thousand  souls,  and  the  number  of  houses 
to  be  twenty  thousand,  supposing  ten  souls  to  be  in 
every  house,  which  is  an  estimate  far  too  large.  At 
this  time,2  there  are  no  more  than  fifty  thousand  souls. 

In  this  number  is  included  three  hundred  families  of 

* 

Jews  and  a  few  Guebers.  Persian  writers  relate  that 
1 1673.  2 1874. 


*54 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vm. 


the  first  colony  of  Jews  was  brought  hither  in  the  time 
of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  and  that  a  part  of  the  city 
occupied  by  them  was  called  Judea. 

The  ruins  adjacent  to  the  present  city  are  very  ex¬ 
tensive.  The  most  important  objects  are  the  works  of 
the  Sufee  kings.  There  are  five  bridges  over  the 
Zandah  Rud.  They  are  constructed  of  stone  and 
burned  brick.  The  best  built  is  that  called  the  Kurpe 
Shah,  or  bridge  of  the  king.  It  has  a  paved  carriage 
way  thirty  feet  wide,  and  a  walk  on  either  side  for 
footmen,  which  is  covered  with  an  arched  roof  of 
brick.  The  city  was,  and  is  now,  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  river.  There  were,  however,  many  gar¬ 
dens  on  the  south  side  of  the  Zandah  Rud.  Two  wide 
avenues  extend  through  a  great  part  of  the  city.  Each 
avenue  runs  to  a  bridge :  on  both  sides  of  the  avenue 
there  are  rows  of  plane  trees.  A  small  canal  curbed 
with  stone,  was  constructed  in  the  middle  of  the  street. 
In  this  there  are  basins  of  granite,  into  which  the 
water  fell  and  through  which  it  flows. 

The  Maidon  Shah  or  Square  of  the  King  is  an 
oblong  court  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  rows  of  shops 
two  stories  high.  On  one  side  is  the  garden  of  the 
governor.  One  side  is  close  to  the  bazaar,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  colonnade. 

The  Madrassahe  Shah,  or  King’s  College,  has  a  fine 
front  of  tiles,  on  one  of  the  avenues.  Cloisters  are 
constructed  on  the  four  sides  of  the  court  in  two 
stories.  The  rooms  were  once  filled  with  students, 


VIII.] 


THE  ZAND  AH  RUD . 


155 


but  they  have  now  of  a  long  time  been  well-nigh  de¬ 
serted.  Chehar  Bogh  is  the  name  given  to  four  gar¬ 
dens  constructed  by  Shah  Abas.  One  section  ol  these 
called  Chehil  Sutun  or  forty  pillars,  is  a  summer  house 
with  a  porch  having  twenty  pillars.  There  is  a  tank 
of  water  in  front  in  which  the  twenty  pillars  are  re¬ 
flected  making  the  forty  columns  denoted  by  the  name. 
The  twenty  pillars  are  of  brick  and  wood,  resting  upon 
granite  cut  in  the  form  of  lions.  The  ceiling  is  set 
with  mirror  glass  cut  in  small  bits  and  fastened  with 
plaster.  The  interior  is  said  to  have  contained  the 
throne.  On  the  walls  there  are  many  pictures.  The 
upper  part  of  this  building  is  occupied  by  artists  and 
artizans  who  manufacture  cards  and  kalamdans. 

In  another  part  of  the  city  there  is  a  mosque  with 
two  minarets  so  constructed  that  a  person  standing 
between  the  two  can  by  a  slight  motion  of  his  feet 

cause  the  minarets  to  vibrate. 

The  river  is  believed  to  take  the  name  Zandah  Rud, 
meaning  living  river,  from  the  excellence  of  its  water, 
or  from  the  real  or  supposed  fact  that  the  water  is 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture.  In  the  sum¬ 
mer  season  the  water  is  well-nigh  consumed.  At 
other  seasons  it  flows  to  the  desert  where  it  forms  an 
extended  morass.  The  once  celebrated  suburb  called 
Julfah  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  river  and 
about  two  miles  from  the  city.  The  name  was  taken 
from  the  Armenian  town  of  Julfah,  in  Georgia,  in¬ 
habited  by  Armenians,  who  were  removed  to  this 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[vm. 


*5^ 


place  by  Shah  Abas  in  a.d.  1603.  The  Shah  allotted 
lands  to  the  Armenians  and  the  place  was  called  New 
Julfah.  The  first  colony  was  increased  by  subsequent 
importation  of  captives  from  Armenia,  until  it  contained 
sixty  thousand  souls. 

Of  the  twelve  churches  as  first  constructed,  three 
are  claimed  by  the  Romanists  to  have  belonged  to  the 
Papal  Armenians.  Seven  or  eight  of  these  churches 
are  now  standing  in  fair  condition,  yet  going  to  ruin. 
The  cathedral  is  the  principal  structure.  Its  interior 
walls  are  profusely  ornamented  with  paintings.  The 
best  preserved  churches  are  the  Cathedral,  St.  Stephens 
and  St.  John.  These  bear  the  dates  1104,  1140  and 
1144  of  the  Armenian  era.1 

This  colony  is  reported  to  have  been  formed  of  the 
wealthier  class  of  Armenians.  It  received  much  patron¬ 
age  from  Shah  Abas  and  his  successors;  but  has 
steadily  declined  since  the  last  of  the  Sufee  kings.  It 
suffered  much  during  the  inroad  of  the  Afghans  and 
in  subsequent  times.  The  colony  is  now  reduced  to 
about  twenty-five  hundred  souls,  the  greater  part  of 
whom  are  very  poor.  The  ecclesiastical  establishment 
consists  of  a  bishop,  archbishop,  and  an  uncertain  and 
small  number  of  suffragans.  There  is  a  monastery 
and  nunnery  conducted  on  a  small  scale.  The  arch¬ 
bishop  comprehends  in  his  diocese  the  Armenians 
of  India  and  of  Eastern  Persia.  He  is  subject  to 
the  Catholikos  of  Etchmiadzin.  The  present  arch- 

1  A.  D.  1655,  1691,  1695. 


VIII.] 


ISPAHAN  AND  J UL FA H— FAMINE. 


157 


bishop  is  a  courteous  gentleman  about  thirty-five 
years  of  age.  He  derives  an  uncertain  revenue  from 
the  impoverished  Armenians  of  Central  and  Eastern 
Persia,  which  is  supplemented  by  funds  from 'India. 
There  is  in  Julfah  one  priest  of  the  Roman  Catholic  So¬ 
ciety  of  Lazarists.  He  claimed  that  his  church  was  rep¬ 
resented  in  Ispahan  early  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
present  mission  was  begun  in  1839.  It  has  one  church, 
a  nunnery,  a  small  school,  and  about  sixty  adherents. 

The  people  of  Ispahan  and  Julfah  suffered  very 
much  from  the  famine.  Many  were  supported  by 
Mr.  Bruce,  a  missionary  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society.  He  received  from  England,  for  the  aid  of 
the  sufferers,  about  sixteen  thousand  pounds  sterling. 
Pie  fed  or  aided  with  these  funds  about  seven  thousand 
people.  Of  these  who  were  assisted  two  thousand 
were  Armenians.  The  remainder  were  Mohammedans 
of  Ispahan  and  other  places.  I  learned  from  Mr. 
Bruce  that  the  Church  Missionary  Society  had  not 
authorized  the  establishment  of  a  mission  in  Persia; 
he  was  here  at  his  own  choice  to  make  a  revision 
of  the  New  Testament  in  Persian.  He  had  charge  of 
a  school  for  boys  and  carried  on  mission  work.  The 
school  contained  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  boys, 
including  some  thirty  orphans.  The  teachers  were 
Armenians  of  Julfah,  and  two  of  them  were  priests. 
This  mission  begun  by  Mr.  Bruce  was  adopted  by  his 
society  in  1875.  There  are  now1  two  male  mission- 

1 1884. 


158 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[viii. 


aries,  and  one  female  missionary,  a  chapel,  an  organ¬ 
ized  church,  and  two  schools. 

The  Armenians  of  Julfah  are  engaged  in  trade  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  wine  and  arak.  The  people  of 
Ispahan  are  for  the  most  part  Mohammedans,  and  have 
a  local  trade.  The  namads  of  Ispahan,  and  vessels 
of  copper  and  brass  manufactured  here,  are  in  demand 
in  other  cities.  Zile  Sultan,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Shah, 
is  governor  of  the  province,  and  resides  here.  The 
Sheik  al  Islam  has  an  actual  or  assumed  authority  over 
the  religious  orders  of  the  city ;  but  has  no  power  or 
influence  over  the  mullahs  of  other  cities.  The  plain 
of  Ispahan  has  an  elevation  of  about  four  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  fertility  of  the  plain,  the 
supply  of  water  from  the  Zandah  Rud,  and  a  propitious 
climate  combine  to  make  this  a  favourable  location  for 
the  capital  of  the  country.  But  these  conditions  are 
not  the  most  powerful  causes  of  prosperity  in  Persia. 

At  present  Ispahan  impresses  one  more  by  the 
extent  of  its  ruins,  than  by  any  other  feature.  Many 
bazaars  constructed  in  the  best  manner  have  not  an 
occupant.  Mosques  and  schools  are  deserted.  A 
multitude  of  the  humbler  dwellings  are  without  inhab¬ 
itant  and  falling  to  earth.  Ispahan  is  the  relic  of  a 
powerful  and  fallen  dynasty  of  kings,  and  Julfah  is  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  the  memorial  of  a  captive  and  perishing 
church. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


From  Tehran  to  the  Black  Sea — Routes — Ride  to  Casveen — Ride  to 
Mazarah — Chapar  and  Caravan — The  Hazan  Pass — From  Haz&n  to 
Poie  Chinar — Poie  Chinar — The  Shah  Rud,  or  King  River — Treeless 
and  Forest  Regions — Furious  Winds — The  Safeed  Rud— Olive  Groves 
— Rustumabad — Rice  fields  and  Booths — From  RustumabM  to 
Kudum — The  People — Their  Dwellings — Herds  of  Cattle — Ride  to 
Rasht — Country  between  Rasht  and  Pere  Bazaar— Navigation  to 
Anzile — The  Mord  Aub — Situation  of  Anzile — Persian  Ships  and 
Russian  Control — Mail  Steamers — The  Me  chyle — Use  of  Petroleum 
for  Fuel — Astara  and  Lankoran — Natural  Harbour — Islands — Environs 
of  Baku — Customs — Appearance — Population  and  Importance — Pub¬ 
lic  Buildings — Languages — Cape  Apsheran — Petroleum  Wells — Fire 
Temple — Transportation  of  Oil — Water  of  Baku- — Russian  Post — 
Country  between  Baku  and  Shirwan — Shirwan  and  Shamakha — Earth¬ 
quakes — Sargis — The  sect  of  the  Molakans — Routes  to  Tiflis — De¬ 
scent  from  the  Caucasus — Rivers — Aug  Tchai — River  Cyrus  or  Kur — 
Gangah — Gessan — Situation  of  Tiflis — Altitude  and  Climate — Anti¬ 
quity — Population — Emporium — From  Tiflis  to  Pote — Climate  of  Pote, 
and  Mortality — Batoum— Russian  Customs— Railway  to  Baku — De¬ 
cline  of  Tiflis — People  of  the  Caucasus — Return  to  Tehran. 

I  shall  give  in  this  chapter  an  account  of  a  journey 
made  by  me  to  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas  in  the 
autumn  of  1875.  If  a  part  of  the  route  pursued  lies 
in  territory  now  subject  to  Russia,  yet  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  same  country  was  in  former 
times  subject  to  the  Shahs,  and  the  history  of  it 

i59 


i6o 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


is  intimately  connected  with  the  history  of  Persia. 
At  this  time  a  very  large  number  of  the  people  in¬ 
habiting  Georgia  are  of  the  sect  of  the  Twelve  Imams. 
It  is  estimated  that  of  the  four  million  people  inhabit¬ 
ing  the  eight  thousand  square  miles  of  territory  called 
the  Caucasus,  two  million  two  hundred  and  fifty  thou¬ 
sand  souls  are  Mohammedans. 

There  are  two  principal  routes  from  Tehran  to  the 
Caspian  Sea.  One  by  way  of  Casveen  and  the  Hazan 
Pass,  the  other  by  Damavand  and  Barfrush  to  Mash- 
hade  Sar.  The  latter  is  much  the  shorter,  requiring 
but  six  days’  travel.  It  is  not,  however,  the  most  fre¬ 
quented  route.  The  objections  to  it  are  the  great  height 
of  the  pass,  the  want  of  post  houses  and  stations,  and 
the  lack  of  accommodations  in  case  of  detention,  at 
Mashhade  Sar.  It  is  thought  also  that  one  is  more 
likely  to  suffer  from  malaria  if  detained  at  this  port 
than  he  would  be  at  Rasht  or  Anzile. 

I  left  Tehran  on  the  29th  of  September,  intending 
to  go  to  Rasht  and  Anzile,  thence  to  Baku  by  steamer, 
and  from  that  place  to  Tiflis  by  Russian  post.  A 
Persian  servant  went  with  me  to  Anzile.  I  had  made 
a  start  on  the  previous  evening,  but  the  chapar  horses 
were  not  brought  in  time  to  reach  the  gate  before  it 
was  closed  for  the  night.  We  found  the  gate  locked 
and  the  key  had  been  carried  to  the  custodian  of  the 
city.  It  was  now  too  late  to  obtain  an  order  from 
the  authorities  for  the  opening  of  the  gate.  On 
similar  occasions  in  time  previous  I  had  experienced 


IX.] 


RIDE  TO  CAS  VEEN. 


161 


no  great  difficulty  in  passing  the  piles  of  earth  which 
may  be  called  a  wall,  at  a  point  where  the  flood  had 
carried  the  earth  away;  but  after  remaining  open 
during  seyeral  years,  the  breach  had  recently  been 
repaired  through  the  revived  vigilance  of  the  Sadr 
Azam.  It  was  now  impossible  to  get  out  of  the  city 
at  any  point  of  which  I  had  knowledge.  The  natives 
usually  have  some  opening  well  concealed,  by  which 
one  can  pass  for  a  consideration.  I  had  no  doubt  a 
gap  could  be  found,  but  as  I  did  not  feel  disposed  to 
investigate  after  nine  o’clock  at  night,  I  returned  to  my 
house  for  the  night. 

At  the  earliest  dawn  we  passed  the  gate,  but  owing 
to  the  bad  condition  of  the  horses  we  did  not  reach 
Casveen  until  nine  o’clock  at  night.  The  last  stage 
of  four  farasangs  was  made  after  dark  and  by  the  light 
of  a  lantern  which  one  of  the  men  carried.  Two  of 
the  horses  ridden  by  me  came  down,  but  without  doing 
any  harm.  Soon  after  ten  o’clock  we  left  Casveen  for 
a  ride  to  Mazarah,  five  farasangs  distant.  We  reached 
the  station  soon  after  midnight,  having  ridden,  since 
morning,  twenty-nine  farasangs,  or  one  hundred  and 
sixteen  miles.  The  last  stage  was  made  with  a  trotting 
horse,  which  would  travel  with  no  other  gait.  It  may 
seem  to  most  persons  to  be  quite  unnecessary  to  make 
so  much  haste  and  experience  so  much  inconveni¬ 
ence,  or  torture  the  poor  horses  by  fast  riding;  but 
wearisome  as  chapar  riding  may  be,  the  slow  pro¬ 
gress  of  a  caravan  is  more  tiresome,  and  prolongs  the 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


162 


misery  of  riding,  and  of  lodging  in  Persian  hovels. 
As  to  the  torture  of  the  horses,  it  is  to  be  said  that  as 
they  make  but  one  stage,  it  may  be  a  question  which 
has  the  greater  torture,  the  rider  or  the  horse. 

At  Mazarah  no  horse  could  be  had,  and  wre  were 
obliged  to  delay  until  one  should  come  in.  We  there¬ 
fore  remained  until  morning.  I  was  then  obliged  to 
take  Hobson’s  choice  and  ride  a  horse  which  had  come 
in  from  a  journey  of  nine  farasangs.  I  rode  over  the 
same  stage,  making  a  trip  for  him  of  continuous  travel 
of  near  seventy-two  miles.  From  Mazarah  the  road 
ascends  the  Hazan  pass  of  the  Elburz  range.  The 
summit  is  a  little  less  than  six  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  village  of  Hazan  is  near  a  farasang  from 
the  highest  point,  and  on  the  northern  slope.  It  con¬ 
tains  an  old  caravansary  and  a  few  hovels.  From 
Hazan  to  Poie  Chinar  the  distance  is  three  farasangs, 
and  the  descent  is  continuous  and  precipitous.  The 
descent  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  val¬ 
ley  of  the  Shah  Rud,  a  short  distance  beyond  Poie 
Chinar,  is  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  we 
descend  from  an  altitude  of  five  thousand  feet  in  the 
course  of  about  fourteen  miles.  The  road  is,  however, 
much  more  precipitous  in  some  parts  of  the  way  than 
in  other  portions. 

At  Poie  Chinar  there  was  an  old  caravansary,  too 
filthy  to  occupy.  The  nearest  post  house  was  at 
Manjeel,  four  farasangs  distant.  The  name  Poie  Chinar 
means  the  foot  of  the  plane  tree.  If  the  trees  were 


IX.] 


MANJEEL. 


163 


ever  here  they  have  perished.  In  later  years  a  chapar 
khanah  has  been  constructed  here,  and  the  passage  of 
the  mountain  is  made  with  less  fatigue,  since  fresh 
horses  may  usually  be  had  at  this  post  house.  Some 
four  miles  from  Poie  Chinar,  the  road  crosses  the 
Shah  Rud  River  by  a  brick  bridge.  This  river  rises 
on  the  northern  slope  of  Shimron  and  flows  nearly 
due  west,  passing  within  a  mile  of  the  station  Poie 
Chinar.  The  road  hence  to  Manjeel  follows  in  part 
the  margin  of  the  river  and  the  valley.  Near  Manjeel 
this  stream  unites  with  the  Kizil  Uzen  flowing  from 
the  west.  The  united  waters  flow  thence  to  the  Cas¬ 
pian  Sea  under  the  name  Safeed  Rud.  The  Shah  Rud 
at  the  bridge  is  about  fifty  feet  wide,  and  has  a  shallow 
and  rapid  current.  All  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Elburz  as  far  as  to  Hazan  resembles  the  regions  of  the 
interior  by  being  treeless  and  barren.  But  a  change 
in  the  aspect  of  the  country  is  apparent  in  the  descent 
from  the  summit  of  the  pass.  The  northern  slope  has 
a  few  low  shrubs.  The  northern  side  of  the  valley  of 
the  Shah  Rud  has  some  groves  of  fir,  and  the  tops  of 
the  second  range  of  mountains  are  covered  with  dense 
forests. 

Manjeel  is  a  village  of  about  one  hundred  houses. 
It  is  situated  near  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers 
which  I  have  here  described.  It  is,  however,  so  far  up 
the  side  of  the  mountain  as  to  be  beyond  the  floods 
which  sometimes  cover  the  lowest  lands  of  the  valley. 
It  is  near  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 


164 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


sea.  The  only  telegraph  office  between  Rasht  and 
Casveen  is  at  this  place.  The  post  house  in  this  village 
is  the  best  one  north  of  Casveen.  Before  we  reached 
Manjeel,  and  some  two  miles  from  that  town,  we  met 
two  companies  of  men  drawing  wagons  loaded  with 
castings  for  the  king’s  shops  in  Tehran.  One  of  the 
companies  consisted  of  fourteen  men.  They  had  con¬ 
sumed  the  entire  day  in  hauling  the  load  two  miles, 
and  had  been  three  months  in  coming  from  Rasht  to 
this  place,  a  distance  of  about  sixty  miles.  The  road 
is  impassable  for  wagons. 

About  two  miles  north  of  Manjeel  the  Safeed  Rud 
passes  by  a  very  narrow  gorge,  through  the  coast 
range  of  the  Elburz.  The  narrowest  point  of  the 
chasm  is  here  where  the  river  enters  the  mountain. 
There  is,  at  this  point,  a  bridge  of  brick,  and  the  road 
crosses  to  the  western  side  of  the  river,  and  follows 
that  bank  of  the  stream.  The  length  of  the  chasm  by 
the  roadway  is  about  forty  miles.  It  opens  a  narrow 
channel  to  the  lowlands  which  border  the  Caspian 
Sea. 

Near  sunset  a  furious  gale  began  to  blow  from  the 
north,  which  continued  all  night.  This  chasm  is  ncted 
for  these  violent  winds.  They  continue  during  certain 
hours  of  quite  every  day.  Their  force  is  least  at  early 
dawn  and  increases  until  midnight.  It  is  unsafe  to 
attempt  crossing  the  bridge  at  some  hours  of  the  day. 
Mules  have  sometimes  been  blown  from  the  bridge, 
and  it  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  that  the  water  of 


IX.] 


R  US  TUMABA  D—RICE  FIELDS. 


165 


the  river  should  be  blown  over  the  top  of  the  bridge, 
which  is  some  thirty  feet  above  the  river  bed.  The 
chasm  opens  a  way  for  the  winds  which  are  pent  up 
on  the  southern  Caspian.  The  mountains  on  either 
hand  of  the  gorge  rise  to  a  height  of  six  and  eight 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Safeed  Rud  is 
nearly  dry  in  the  late  summer  and  autumn.  The 
channel  is  not  more  than  from  fifty  to  eighty  feet 
wide  in  the  greater  part  of  the  way.  The  river 
appears  to  have  much  greater  width  and  depth  below 
Rustumabad.  The  roadway  from  Manjeel  to  a  point 
some  three  farasangs  below  Rastumabad  runs  on  the 
margin  of  the  chasm.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  way 
the  passage  has  been  cut  out  of  the  rocks,  but  in  a  very 
rough  manner.  No  skill  has  been  shown  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  road.  In  many  places  it  passes  along 
the  brink  of  a  rock  several  hundred  feet  above  the 
river,  and  is  so  narrow  that  caravans  pass  one  another 
with  difficulty.  The  mules  and  horses  are  sometimes 
crowded  over  the  height  with  their  burdens,  and  are 
killed  in  the  fall.  Olive  trees  grow  at  Manjeel,  but 
are  more  abundant  below  that  station.  The  trees 
thrive  on  these  mountains,  and  furnish  the  principal 
production  and  article  of  commerce  in  this  region. 
Oranges  grow  here  and  in  the  provinces  of  Mazanda- 
ran  and  Gelan. 

There  is  a  caravansary,  chapar  khanah,  and  a  small 
village  at  Rustumabad.  Rice  is  grown  in  the  valley. 
In  the  rice  swamps  booths  are  erected.  In  these  the 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


1 66 


owners  of  the  rice  fields  keep  watch  by  night  or  by  day. 
Every  booth  was  made  with  four  poles  stuck  in  the  wet 
ground;  a  floor  is  placed  about  ten  feet  above  the  water, 
and  above  this  a  roof  of  straw  thatching.  In  this  place 
the  watcher  is  safe  from  the  attack  of  the  wild  hogs 
and  other  animals,  and  is  able  to  protect  his  property. 
The  aspect  of  the  mountains  is  in  many  places  attract¬ 
ive.  Little  patches  of  cultivated  land,  or  green  meadow, 
separate  dense  groves  of  evergreens  and  olives.  The 
distance  from  Rustumabad  to  the  next  chapar  khanah 
is  five  farasangs.  The  forests  become  more  dense  as 
one  approaches  the  lowlands,  and  there  is  an  increasing 
variety  of  trees  and  foliage. 

Near  the  Imam  Zadah,  the  road  descends  the  last 
of  the  mountains  to  the  lowland.  From  this  point  to 
Rasht,  a  distance  of  near  thirty  miles,  there  is  a  graded 
road  in  fair  condition,  though  very  tortuous.  The  for¬ 
ests  here  are  called  jungle  by  the  natives.  Oak,  wal¬ 
nut,  and  beech  trees  abound.  The  box  and  walnut  are 
valuable  for  export.  The  forests  are  frequented  by 
many  birds  of  gay  plumage,  and  by  tigers,  leopards, 
bears,  and  wild  boars.  The  sky,  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  is  clouded,  and  the  air  is  so  humid 
that  the  foliage  is  constantly  wet  as  with  dew,  and  the 
clothing  of  the  traveller  gathers  dampness  as  he  passes 
along  the  road  on  a  rainless  day. 

The  people  inhabiting  this  region  are  distinguished 
from  the  people  of  the  interior  by  race  and  language. 
They  represent  the  ancient  Gelae ;  from  them  is  de- 


IX.] 


RASHT—POPULA  TION 


167 


rived  the  name  of  the  province  Gelan.  The  people 
are  called  Gelee  by  the  Persians.  They  are  of  lithe 
and  spare  form  and  sallow  complexion.  They  live  in 
rude  huts  constructed  of  poles;  and  having  the  sides 
and  roof  thatched  with  straw.  These  dwellings  are 
hidden  in  the  thickets  and  dense  forests,  and  their 
presence  is  known  only  by  the  narrow  pathway  of  the 
jungle.  Numerous  herds  of  fat  cattle  roam  at  large, 
never  needing  stable  or  feed,  for  the  grass  and  foliage 
are  not  destroyed  by  frost  or  cold.  The  people  find 
employment  in  growing  rice,  making  silk  and  char¬ 
coal,  raising  olives  and  oranges,  and  in  cutting  timber. 
These  products  are  exchanged  for  the  wheat  and  fruit 
of  the  interior,  and  for  the  cotton  goods  brought  from 
Russia.  We  rode  from  Kudum  to  Rasht  in  a  drench¬ 
ing  rain,  which  saturated  every  article  of  clothing  in 
spite  of  gossamer  overcoats.  Rasht  presents  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  cities  of  the  interior.  The  latter  are 
situated  on  broad  plains  or  on  the  treeless  slopes  of 
mountains.  Rasht  is  concealed  by  the  foliage  of  a 
forest.  Quite  all  the  houses  are  constructed  of  burned 
and  red  brick,  and  are  two  stories  high.  The  roofs  are 
square  or  pointed,  and  covered  with  tiles.  They  are 
made  with  broad  eaves  to  protect  the  walls  from  rain 
and  moisture. 

The  city  contains,  as  is  supposed,  about  twenty-five 
thousand  people,  all  of  whom  are  Mohammedans,  ex¬ 
cept  some  three  hundred  Armenians,  and  half  a  score 
of  Europeans.  There  is  here  a  British  and  a  Russian 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


1 68 


consulate.  The  governor  of  Gelan  resides  in  Rasht. 
There  is  a  telegraph  line  from  this  place  to  Tehran, 
but  it  is  of  little  use  between  Rasht  and  Manjeel, 
owing  to  the  humidity  of  the  air  and  the  condition 
of  the  wires.  The  bazaars  are  supplied  with  fruits, 
Russian  sugar,  and  cotton  goods  from  Europe.  Some 
attention  is  given  to  the  raising  of  tobacco,  and  it  has 
been  thought  that  the  climate  is  favourable  to  the 
growth  of  the  tea  plant.  The  sugar  cane  grows  luxu¬ 
riantly  in  some  districts.  In  1876-7,  the  plague  pre¬ 
vailed  in  this  city  with  great  virulence.  It  is  estimated 
that  as  many  as  four  thousand  people  fell  victims  to  the 
scourge. 

I  have  written  on  a  previous  page  of  the  route 
between  Anzile  and  Rasht.  The  country  between 
Rasht  and  Pere  Bazaar  was  originally  a  morass  and 
jungle,  wellnigh  impassable.  A  turnpike  has  been 
constructed.  The  distance  is  about  six  miles.  The 
only  building  at  Pere  Bazaar  is  a  custom  house.  This 
is  the  place  of  landing  for  the  small  row  and  sail  boats 
coming  from  Anzile.  A  small  creek  flows  by  the 
bazaar.  On  the  waters  of  this  little  stream  a  num¬ 
ber  of  sail  and  row  boats  were  moored,  waiting  for 
passengers  and  freight.  The  boatmen  were  very 
noisy,  and  demanded  exorbitant  rates.  They  gradu¬ 
ally  reduced  their  demands  to  one-half  the  price  first 
asked. 

I  secured  a  seat  in  one  of  the  boats  and  watched  the 
novel  process  of  navigation.  The  boatmen  carried  a 


IX.] 


ANZILE—SURR  O  UNDINGS. 


169 


line  to  the  shore  and  towed  the  craft  down  the  creek 
until  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  proceed  further  by 
land.  They  then  got  into  the  boat  and  took  up  their 
oars.  In  half  an  hour’s  time  we  entered  the  waters  of 
the  Mord  Aub.  Passing  the  mouth  of  the  creek,  the 
shores  of  which  are  marked  by  reeds  and  a  lamp  post, 
we  came  upon  an  open  bay,  which  required  three  hours’ 
time  to  cross  to  Anzile.  When  the  wind  blows  from 
the  land  the  water  of  this  bay  is  fresh,  but  a  heavy  wind 
from  the  north  drives  the  salt  water  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
into  the  bay.  The  breadth  of  the  Mord  Aub  may  be 
twelve  miles,  and  the  greatest  length  twenty-five  miles. 
The  water  is  shallow  except  in  front  of  Anzile.  The 
outlet  of  this  bay  is  a  channel  from  three  to  five  hun¬ 
dred  feet  wide,  and  between  two  narrow  peninsulas 
separating  the  Mord  Aub  from  the  Caspian. 

Anzile  is  on  the  western  side  of  this  outlet.  The 
peninsula  upon  which  it  is  situated  is  less  than  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  and  but  a  few  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  sea.  A  bar  extends  across  the  channel 
and  prevents  large  vessels  from  entering  the  bay.  The 
greatest  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  is  from  six  to  eight 
feet.  The  Caspian  Sea  is  very  deep  a  few  miles  from 
the  shore,  having  a  depth  of  three  to  five  hundred 
fathoms.  The  winds  from  the  north  often  drive  a 
heavy  sea  upon  the  coast.  The  deep  sea  rolling  upon 
the  bar,  prevents,  for  a  time,  all  entrance  to  the  bay  by 
steamers  and  sailing  vessels.  The  small  village  of  Anzile 
contains  a  custom  house  and  bazaar.  With  the  ex- 


170  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS .  [ix. 

ception  of  a  half  dozen  families  of  Armenians,  the  people 
are  Mohammedans.  The  king’s  palace  is  a  conspicuous 
object.  It  is  situated  on  the  point  of  the  peninsula  and 
in  the  village.  The  grounds  are  suffering  from  the  en¬ 
croachment  of  the  sea,  and  the  palaces  will  be  under¬ 
mined  in  time,  if  efficient  means  are  not  adopted  for 
their  security. 

A  small  side-wheeled  steamer,  belonging  to  the 
Shah,  was  anchored  near  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
outlet.  This  is  the  only  steamer  owned  by  the  Shah, 
and  afloat  on  the  Caspian.  A  few  ships  are  owned 
and  run  by  Persians,  but  these  are  so  few  that  it  may 
be  said  that  quite  all  the  shipping  is  owned  by  Russians, 
and  Russia  has  entire  control  of  this  sea.  Steamers 
of  fair  size  and  accommodation  touch  at  all  the  ports 
twice  each  week  in  summer,  and  once  every  month  in 
winter.  The  passenger  and  mail  steamers  of  the  Cau¬ 
casus  and  Mercury  Line  ply  between  Astrakan  and 
Ashurada.  The  steamer  of  this  company  was  due  on 
Friday  evening.  It  was  not  certain  at  what  hour  she 
would  arrive.  The  small  boats,  therefore,  were  moored 
along  the  beach  and  in  the  outlet  of  the  bay,  awaiting 
her  coming.  It  was  not  until  sunrise  on  Saturday  that 
the  vessel  came  in  sight.  She  cast  anchor  about  two 
miles  from  the  shore,  and  it  was  necessary  to  row  this 
distance.  The  Mechyle,  for  such  was  the  name  of  our 
steamer,  is  a  propeller,  two  hundred  and  seventy-five 
feet  long  and  thirty  feet  beam.  She  made  twelve  knots 
an  hour  and  rolled  like  a  log.  This,  with  other  boats 


IX.]  USE  OF  PETROLEUM  FOR  FUEL.  171 

of  the  Caucasus  and  Mercury  Company,  were  bought 
in  England  and  Europe,  and,  after  sailing  up  the  Baltic 
to  St.  Petersburg,  were  cut  in  two  and  transported  by 
a  portage  to  the  Volga,  where,  being  put  together, 
they  in  time  of  high  water  steamed  down  to  the  Cas¬ 
pian  Sea. 

A  marked  feature  in  all  these  boats  is  the  arrange¬ 
ment  for  using  the  crude  petroleum  for  fuel.  The  fires 
are  started  with  wood,  and  as  soon  as  steam  is  up  a 
jet  of  petroleum  is  driven  by  a  jet  of  steam  into 
spray,  and  to  the  end  of  the  furnace.  The  combus¬ 
tion  is  thus  made  perfect.  The  two  jets  are  controlled 
by  means  of  two  faucets,  and  pipes  properly  adjusted  at 
the  opening  of  the  furnace.  It  is  claimed  that  no 
danger  is  incurred  by  the  use  of  the  petroleum.  Such 
is  the  abundance  of  this  oil  at  Baku,  that  it  is  the 
cheapest  fuel  to  be  had  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  it  is  the  only  fuel  available  on  the  eastern  coast. 

The  steamers  touch  at  Astara  and  Lankoran.  The 
former  is  a  small  village  on  the  boundary  between 
Russia  and  Persia.  The  latter  is  the  first  Russian  town 
on  the  Caspian  coast.  Ten  miles  north  of  Lankoran 
there  is  a  broad  bay  protected  on  the  north.  Steamers 
and  sailing  vessels  run  into  this  natural  harbour  in 
rough  weather,  and  when  they  cannot  safely  lie  at 
anchor  in  the  roadstead  of  these  towns.  On  the  north 
of  this  bay  there  is  a  chain  of  islands  off  the  west 
coast.  In  rough  weather  the  vessels  run  between 
these  islands  and  the  mainland.  Our  steamer  made 


172 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


but  short  stops,  and,  though  we  did  not  leave  Anzile 
until  near  nine  o’clock,  we  entered  the  harbour  of  Baku, 
two  hundred  and  forty  miles  distant  from  Anzile,  at 
about  nine  o’clock  in  the  morning  of  the  next  day. 
There  is  a  clear  view  of  Baku  and  of  the  surround¬ 
ing  country  to  be  had  from  the  deck  of  the  steamer  on 
entering  the  spacious  bay  upon  the  shores  of  which 
the  town  is  situated.  Many  islands  appear  on  the 
south  of  the  harbour.  A  bold  ridge  runs  to  the  sea 
on  the  south  of  the  town.  There  are  high  hills  on 
the  west  which,  in  the  northwest,  unite  by  a  gradual 
slope  with  the  lowland  of  Cape  Apsheran.  The  cape 
lies  on  the  north  of  the  town. 

The  officers  of  the  customs  came  aboard  as  soon  as 
the  steamer  entered  the  bay.  Our  passports  had  been 
surrendered  to  the  clerk  of  the  steamer  to  be  delivered 
to  these  officials.  All  the  baggage  was  taken  to  the 
custom  house,  where  it  was  examined.  As  it  was 
now  the  Sabbath,  I  went  immediately  to  the  congrega¬ 
tion  of  the  Protestant  Armenians.  I  found  about  forty 
persons  present.  One  Avek  Vartinoff,  an  officer  of 
the  police,  led  the  services  in  the  Armenian.  Quite 
all  the  members  of  this  congregation  were  from  the 
city  of  Shamakha.  The  services  were  conducted  in 
the  order  of  Presbyterians  or  Methodists,  and  no 
ritual  was  used.  There  are  in  Baku  two  Russian  and 
two  Armenian  churches.  The  Mohammedans  enjoy 
their  own  religious  faith  with  less  ostentation  than  is 
customary  in  the  countries  of  Islam. 


ix.]  BAKU— POPULATION  AND  IMPORTANCE.  173 


Baku  has  the  appearance  of  a  large  European  town. 
A  goodly  number  of  ships  were  at  anchor  in  the  har¬ 
bour.  The  bay  forms  a  natural  harbour.  The  force 
of  the  sea  coming  from  the  east  is  broken  by  the 
islands  which  lie  off  the  coast  The  name  Baku  is 
thought  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Persian  words 
bad ,  the  wind,  and  kubedal 2,  beaten,  and  therefore 
means  wind  beaten.  It  is  so  named  from  the  preva¬ 
lence  of  winds  on  the  coast.  These  drive  the  sand 
into  drifts  in  the  streets  of  the  town.  It  is,  however, 
•  conjectured  that  the  name  was  taken  from  that  of  a 
Tartar  prince  who  once  ruled  in  these  regions. 

The  population  of  the  city  is  about  ten  1  thousand 
souls.  It  is  the  most  important  town  on  the  shores 
of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  derives  importance  from  its 
excellent  harbour,  extensive  petroleum  wells,  and  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  principal  military  post  for  this 
district.  A  large  number  of  the  people  are  Russians 
in  the  service  of  the  government.  Many  are  Germans. 
The  Armenians  number  three  thousand  souls.  The 
Turkish  or  Tartar  Mohammedans  are  more  numerous 
than  the  Europeans.  The  barracks  and  government 
buildings  are  spacious.  The  Russian  churches  are 
quaint  structures  of  stone.  Each  one  has  its  roof 
painted  green,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  triple  cupola, 
significant  of  the  Trinity.  An  old  tower  of  stone  near 
the  sea  is  a  memorial  of  the  Tartar  rulers.  The 

1  In  1884  the  place  contained  about  thirty  thousand  people,  and 
promises  soon  to  be  the  largest  city  of  the  Caucasus. 


174 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


bazaars  in  the  lower  part  of  the  town  with  their  Mus¬ 
sulman  occupants,  are  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
European  shops  in  the  streets  adjacent  and  above 
them.  The  languages  spoken  on  the  streets  and  in 
the  shops  are  the  Russian  and  the  Turkish.  The 
drivers  of  the  public  conveyances  are  Turks.  The 
buildings  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  stone. 

Baku  is  more  noted  for  the  petroleum  of  Cape  Ap- 
sheran  than  for  any  other  feature.  On  my  return,  a  few 
weeks  later,  I  had  time  to  go  to  the  petroleum  wells,  and 
it  will  be  in  place  to  give  some  account  of  them  here. 
Cape  Apsheran  is  about  twenty-five  or  thirty  versts 
wide  in  a  line  drawn  north  from  Baku.  There  are 
several  localities  in  which  the  oil  has  been  found.  But 
the  principal  source  of  supply  is  a  small  tract  of  land 
about  fifteen  versts  north  of  the  city.  Near  a  hundred 
wells  have  here  been  sank  in  the  space  of  a  few  acres. 
The  wells  are  opened  by  boring,  and  oil  is  obtained  at 
a  depth  of  from  three  to  five  hundred  feet.  The  flow 
of  oil  is  like  the  jet  of  a  geyser.  The  jets  of  oil 
reach  the  height  of  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet  above 
the  ground.  At  this  time  a  well  had  recently  been 
opened,  and  efforts  were  being  made  to  stop  the  flow 
of  oil  without  effect.  The  height  of  the  flow  was  not 
less  than  forty  feet,  a  good-sized  stream  of  the  oil 
flowed  from  the  well  in  a  ditch  to  a  large  pond  of  petro¬ 
leum.  A  few  versts  east  of  this  point,  gas  is  obtained 
by  sinking  pipes  in  wells  dug  or  bored  for  the  purpose. 
I  saw  several  lime  kilns  burning  with  gas  thus  ob- 


IX.] 


THE  RUSSIAN  POST. 


*75 


tained.  An  extensive  series  of  furnaces  were  heated 
in  the  same  way. 

Many  years  ago  there  was  a  fire  temple  of  the  fire- 
worshippers  in  this  place.  The  old  building  was  stand¬ 
ing,  but  appeared  to  be  deserted.  The  fires  of  this 
region  have  long  since  lost  their  mysterious  aspect,  and 
have  been  put  to  such  secular  uses  as  to  appear  to  be 
no  longer  of  Divine  origin,  or  an  appropriate  object  of 
worship.  Having  ceased  to  be  the  symbols  of  the 
fire-worshippers,  they  have  become  the  shrines  of  the 
worshippers  of  Mammon. 

At  this  time  the  only  means  of  conveying  the  oil  to 
the  harbour  was  by  carting  it  in  large  tanks.  In  later 
years  a  railway  has  been  constructed  and  a  pipe  has 
been  laid  to  the  refiners.  There  is  no  good  water  in 
Baku.  That  which  is  obtained  and  used  in  the  town  is 
strongly  impregnated  with  salt  and  petroleum.  Good 
water  is  to  be  had  by  bringing  it  a  distance  of  several 
miles.  On  leaving  Baku  I  had  my  first  experience  of 
the  Russian  post.  The  post  is  controlled  by  the  gov¬ 
ernment.  One  of  two  degrees  of  speed  is  permitted. 
The  choice  must  be  made  by  the  traveller  between  the 
ordinary  rate,  and  chapar.  He  may  have  a  choice  of 
vehicles  also.  These  are  the  phseton,  diligence,  taran- 
tas,  and  troika.  The  tarantas  consists  of  a  coach  set 
on  bars  of  wood  instead  of  steel  springs.  The  troika 
is  a  wooden  box  lined  with  sheet  iron,  and  having  a 
curved  bottom  like  that  of  a  boat,  set  upon  the  axles 
without  any  springs.  The  only  device  for  relief  from 


176 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


the  jolting  of  this  wagon  is  a  net  of  ropes  stretched 
for  a  seat,  or  a  bed  which  the  traveller  in  Russia  is 
always  supposed  to  carry  when  going  by  post. 

These  vehicles  are  let  at  a  carefully  graded  scale  of 
prices,  which  are  supposed  to  represent  the  different 
degrees  of  comfort  imparted  by  each  kind  of  convey¬ 
ance,  as  well  as  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  each. 
No  vehicle  can  be  drawn  by  less  than  three  horses, 
and  four  horses  are  preferable,  and  commonly  re¬ 
quired  ;  for  the  roads  are  rough  and  the  wagons  heavy. 
Four  horses  can  be  hitched  to  the  conveyance  more 
easily  than  three  can  be.  Two  are  attached  to  the 
tongue  and  forward  axle,  and  two  may  be  attached  to 
the  rear  axle  by  means  of  poles  extending  from  the 
axle  over  the  forward  wheels.  There  is  one  pole  on 
each  side,  and  a  singletree  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  the 
pole.  As  I  was  without  travelling  companion,  I  had  no 
need  of  a  diligence  or  tarantas,  and  therefore  hired  a 
troika  and  three  horses,  believing  that  three  could 
draw  the  driver  and  myself.  I  had  not  understood  the 
need  of  taking  a  bed,  and  the  arrangement  of  a  rope 
seat  was  unknown  to  me.  I  had  only  an  overcoat  and 
shawl.  Having  ridden  in  this  conveyance  two  nights 
and  two  days  in  succession,  I  feel  qualified  to  give 
advice,  and  to  say  that  I  do  not  like  the  troika. 

It  was  necessary  that  I  should  go  to  the  post  house, 
to  make  sure  of  leaving  Baku  at  sunset,  and  that 
there  might  be  no  delay.  The  horses  were  attached 
to  the  troika  in  the  yard.  The  vehicle  was  heavy.  A 


IX.] 


1 77 


VILLAGE  OF  SHIR  WAN. 


good  part  of  the  harness  was  made  of  ropes.  The 
usual  bow  was  suspended  above  the  horse  which  was 
in  the  thills,  and  a  bell  was  attached  to  the  top  of  it. 
As  soon  as  the  driver  took  up  the  rope  lines,  the  horses 

sprang  forward  for  the  gateway,  and  one  of  the  wheels 

» 

struck  the  gate  post.  A  man  seized  the  bits  of  the 
horses’  bridles.  The  troika  was  lifted  clear  of  the 
post ;  the  horses  made  a  plunge  into  the  street,  and 
started  upon  a  run  which  they  continued  until  want  of 
breath  compelled  them  to  slacken  their  pace.  This  is 
a  fair  sample  of  the  start  at  every  post  house.  The 
driver  has  but  little  control  over  the  horses,  and  they 
are  trained  to  make  this  sort  of  a  start.  The  drivers 
appear  to  have  been  taught  to  mind  their  own  busi¬ 
ness,  and  to  be  as  uncivil  and  ugly  as  possible.  The 
post  stations  are  from  fifteen  to  twenty  versts1  apart. 
The  horses  are  in  excellent  condition.  We  made  fre¬ 
quent  changes  of  horses  and  drivers,  and  continued 
the  journey  during  the  entire  night.  Soon  after  sun¬ 
rise  we  entered  the  village  of  Shirwan,  having  ridden 
since  sunset  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  thirteen 
versts.  On  returning  over  this  route  a  few  weeks 
later,  I  had  an  opportunity  to  remain  a  day  in  this 
place,  and  drove  thence  to  Baku  in  the  day  time. 

The  country  between  Shirwan  and  Baku  is  a  barren 
region,  and  in  great  part  destitute  of  streams  of  water. 
The  highway  crosses  a  part  of  Cape  Apsheran  for  a 
distance  of  near  fifty  versts.  The  Caspian  Sea  is 

1  A  verst  is  equal  to  a  fraction  over  two-thirds  of  a  mile. 


12 


178 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


plainly  visible  on  the  north  of  the  cape.  In  the  second 
fifty  versts  the  road  traverses  a  hilly  country  much 
higher  than  the  cape.  At  Shirwan  we  come  upon  the 
southeastern  extremity  of  the  Caucasus  range.  Very 
high  and  precipitous  mountains  are  to  be  seen  to  the 
northwest.  There  are  here  two  large  villages.  The 
southern  of  the  two  is  called  Shirwan,  and  is  inhabited 
by  Mussulmans.  The  northern  town  is  called  Sha- 
makha,  and  is  peopled  by  Armenians.  The  villages 
are  contiguous  to  one  another,  and  together  contain 
about  fifteen  thousand  souls.  In  former  years  this 
place  was  the  seat  of  government,  and  was  a  military 
post.  The  town  lost  its  importance  in  i860,  with  the 
removal  of  the  government  offices,  and  the  military 
post,  to  Baku. 

The  decline  of  the  city  is  due  in  part  to  the  earth¬ 
quakes  from  which  it  has  suffered.  That  which 
occurred  in  the  autumn  of  1872  prostrated  many 
houses  and  occasioned  the  death  of  one  hundred 
people.  The  Protestant  Armenians  were  assembled  at 
the  time  of  the  catastrophe,  in  their  house  of  worship, 
which  was  constructed  with  stone  walls  and  a  light 
frame  roof.  The  first  shock  caused  the  people  to 
spring  to  their  feet ;  but  the  quickly  returning  wave 
prevented  escape,  and  prostrated  the  entire  building. 
Twenty  persons  were  instantly  killed,  and  one  hundred 
persons  were  rescued  from  the  ruins.  The  trials  expe¬ 
rienced  by  this  congregation  have  been  many  and  very 
great.  An  Armenian  teacher  and  exhorter  named  Sar- 


IX.] 


S HA  A/A  KHA—EA  R  THQ  UAKES. 


179 


gis  is  the  founder  and  religious  guide  of  this  people.  In 
his  youthful  years  he  attended  the  school  of  the  German 
missionaries  then  stationed  at  Shusha.  He  came  to 
Shamakha  in  1842,  and  opened  a  school  for  Armenian 
children.  In  time,  as  his  Evangelical  sentiments 
became  known,  opposition  was  stirred  up,  and  his 
school  closed.  But  a  goodly  number  of  Armenians 
had  adopted  his  views.  In  1867  he  and  his  adherents 
were  ex-communicated  from  the  Armenian  Church. 
He  was  ordered  to  appear  before  the  bishop.  He  was 
banished  by  the  Russian  authorities,  but  in  time  re¬ 
turned.  During  several  years  the  Protestant  congre¬ 
gation  were  not  permitted  to  hold  religious  services, 
and  the  sacraments  were  denied  them.  Religious 
meetings  were  held  in  secret,  and  in  the  valleys  of 
these  mountains. 

The  Russian  authorities  finally  adopted  a  lenient 
policy,  and  attached  the  congregation  to  the  Lutheran 
Synod,  with  a  pastor  at  Tiflis,  four  hundred  versts 
distant.  No  sacrament  can  be  administered,  nor  can 
marriage  be  celebrated,  except  by  this  pastor.  No 
person  could  become  a  member  of  this  church  except 
upon  a  written  application  accepted  by  the  congrega¬ 
tion,  endorsed  by  the  pastor  at  Tiflis,  and  approved  by 
the  Russian  authorities  in  that  city.  The  Society  now 
numbered  five  hundred  members.  They  have  a  com¬ 
modious  school  building,  erected  by  funds  sent  for  the 
purpose  by  Christian  people  in  Germany.  This  build¬ 
ing  has  a  large  chapel  in  which  the  public  services  of 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[IX. 


180 


the  congregation  are  held.  The  school  for  boys  con¬ 
tained  sixty  boys,  and  that  for  girls,  twenty  pupils.  In 
1884  the  Society  had  in  employ  an  Armenian  pastor, 
who  had  received  his  education  in  Germany,  but  was 
connected  with  the  Lutheran  Synod. 

In  all  this  region  there  are  numbers  of  the  religion¬ 
ists  commonly  called  Molakans.  They  are  of  the 
pure  Russian  stock.  Sixty  thousand  of  this  people 
were  removed  from  Russia  proper  to  the  Caucasus  on 
account  of  their  refusal  to  conform  to  the  Russian 
Church,  from  which  they  had  separated.  Their  creed 
appears  to  be  in  some  particulars  very  indefinite.  They 
discard  the  ordinances  and  hold  the  allegorical  inter¬ 
pretation  of  the  Scriptures.  They  are  agriculturists, 
industrious  and  prosperous. 

From  Shamakha  there  are  two  routes  to  Tiflis:  one 
follows  the  valley  of  the  Kur  River;  the  other  is 
known  as  the  mountain  route.  I  chose  the  former, 
said  to  be  the  better,  and  also  the  longer  by  near  fifty 
versts. 

Leaving  the  village  near  noon,  we  drove  at  a  furious 
rate,  a  distance  of  seventeen  versts,  over  a  hilly  road. 
The  driver  was  told  to  slacken  his  speed,  but  he 
replied  that  the  order  called  for  chapar,  and  that  he 
must  obey  the  order ;  this  was  said  at  the  top  of  a 
long  descent  down  which  the  horses  went  at  a  full 
gallop.  They  fortunately  passed  the  bridge  at  the 
foot  of  the  hill  without  doing  harm.  I  was  more 
fortunate  than  another  person  of  whom  I  heard  in 


IX.] 


DESCENT  FROM  THE  CAUCASUS. 


181 


Tiflis,  for  in  descending  this  mountain  the  wheels  of 
the  tro'ike  struck  the  stone  curbing  of  the  bridge,  and 
he  was  thrown  to  the  ground  with  broken  bones  and 
bruises. 

The  arrival  of  the  governor’s  cortege  by  chapar 
detained  us  an  hour  at  the  next  station.  On  seeing 
me  the  governor  inquired  very  courteously  the  cause 
of  detention,  and  learning  the  reason  ordered  that 
horses  should  be  furnished  at  once.  The  elevation  of 
this  station  is  near  three  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea. 

In  the  course  of  the  next  stage  the  road  follows  a 
spur  of  the  Caucasus,  and  during  several  versts  there 
is  an  extended  view  of  the  valley  of  the  Kur  on  the 
left,  and  south  and  west,  and  of  the  Caucasus  on  the 
north  and  northwest.  The  descent  to  the  valley  is 
very  precipitous,  and  is  made  by  a  zigzag  course.  The 
difference  in  altitude  between  the  summit  and  the 
valley  beneath  the  mountain  is  fully  two  thousand 
feet.  The  Goeg  Tchai,  Aug  Tchai  and  Kur  rivers  flow 
in  this  plain.  Hence  to  Gangah  the  road  follows  the 
valley.  There  are  but  few  villages  and  very  little  cul¬ 
tivation.  The  Aug  Tchai  or  White  River  is  a  consid¬ 
erable  stream,  but  is  divided  into  many  qhannels.  The 
Goeg  Tchai,  or  Green  River,  has  a  depth  at  this  season 
of  two  and  a  half  feet  and  a  width  of  about  seventy- 
five  feet. 

The  village  of  Aug  Tchai  was  reached  by  us  at  mid¬ 
night.  As  no  horses  could  be  obtained,  we  remained 


1 82 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


here  until  morning.  In  the  next  stage  we  crossed  the 
river  Kur  by  a  ferry-boat.  The  boat  was  attached  to 
a  rope  and  propelled  by  the  current.  The  Kur  is  the 
ancient  Cyrus.  At  the  station  Mengatchore  this  river 
is  one  hundred  Russian  orshanes  wide  and  three 
orshanes  deep  in  the  channel.  Hence  to  Gangah  the 
distance  is  fifty  versts.  At  Kara  Tchai,  or  Black  River, 
a  good  road  coming  from  the  Kara  Bogh  region  unites 
with  the  road  from  Baku.  We  entered  Gangah  at 
midnight  and  found  fair  accommodations  in  the 
hotel. 

The  population  of  this  city  is  stated  at  thirty  thou¬ 
sand.  The  people  are  of  many  races  ;  they  are  Kurds, 
Armenians,  Tartars,  Georgians,  and  Russians.  This 
is  the  principal  town  between  Baku  and  Tiflis,  and 
largest  town  in  the  valley  of  the  Kur  below  the  cap¬ 
ital.  The  city  was  taken  by  Agah  Mohammed  Shah 
in  1795  and  1796.1  In  1826  the  Persians  devastated 
this  region,  and  the  Mohammedans  of  Gangah  mas¬ 
sacred  the  garrison  and  exterminated  the  Armenians 
residing  in  the  city. 

The  turnpike  from  Erivan  unites  with  the  road  from 
Baku  near  the  village  Hessan  or  Gessan,  eighty  versts 
southward  of  Tiflis.  From  this  place  there  is  a  good 
graded  road  to  the  capital.  The  country  is  hilly.  The 
level  valley  ceases  near  Gessan.  The  roads  near  this 
point  are  infested  with  banditti.  I  did  not  fear  being 
molested,  but  the  true  state  of  the  country  seemed  to 
1  Watson’s  History  of  Persia,  pp.  90,  91 ;  212,  213. 


IX.] 


TIFLIS—SITUA  TION. 


183 


be  understood  by  a  Russian  officer  in  whose  company 
I  travelled  one  day.  He  said  that  no  Russian  officer 
is  safe  if  belated  or  taken  at  a  disadvantage  by  the 
peasantry. 

The  last  ten  versts  of  the  distance  were  made  over 
a  good  road,  and  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Kur. 
My  first  sight  of  Tiflis  was  obtained  from  this  road. 
The  city  occupies  both  sides  of  the  river.  The  Kur 
here  flows  through  a  deep  rocky  gorge  with  the  rapid¬ 
ity  of  a  mountain  torrent.  On  either  side  there  are 
mountains ;  those  on  the  south  side  of  the  stream 
have  a  steep  descent  to  the  river.  The  mountains 
on  the  north,  in  broader  and  more  gradual  waves,  join 
the  distant  and  higher  peaks  of  the  Caucasus.  The 
city  of  Tiflis  has  an  altitude  of  about  fifteen  hundred 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  intensely  hot  in  the  summer 
season.  The  degree  of  heat  is  often  as  much  as  1 1 5  0  F. 
in  the  shade. 

If  history  be  correct,  the  founding  of  the  city  is  due 
to  the  reputed  virtues  of  the  hot  and  mineral  springs 
in  this  place.  The  name  Tiflis  is  the  term  used  to 
denote  the  mineral  water.  It  is  recorded  that  the 
Czar  Liewvang  resorted  to  the  springs  in  a.  d.  1063 
that  he  might  derive  benefit  from  a  residence  near 
them.  This  statement  of  Sir  K.  Porter  is  controverted 
by  that  of  Wahl,  who  says,  in  substance,  that  the  city 
was  founded  in  a.  d.  469,  and  that  “  its  most  brilliant 
period  was  the  reign  of  Thamur,  from  a.d.  1 184  to  1212.” 
The  present  city  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Caucasus.  It 


184  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [ix. 

has  a  population  of  near  one  hundred  thousand  souls. 
The  inhabitants  are  of  many  races.  They  are  Tartars, 
Armenians,  Jews,  Germans,  Europeans,  Georgians,  and 
Russians.  The  Armenians  are  said  to  number  near 
thirty  thousand  souls,  and  the  Mohammedans  as  many 
more.  The  Armenians  are  traders,  and  are  sharp  and 
enterprising.  The  Germans  are  a  remnant  of  a  colony 
settled  here  under  special  grants  from  the  Czar.  They 
are  wealthy  and  appear  to  be  prosperous. 

Tiflis  is  the  emporium  of  all  the  country  south  of 
the  Caucasus  mountains,  and  of  a  good  part  of  Persia. 
A  military  road  has  been  constructed  hence  across  the 
mountains,  and  a  railway  completed  to  the  Black  Sea. 
The  army  of  the  Caucasus  on  the  peace  footing  is 
sixty  thousand  men.  This  point  is  favourably  situated 
for  the  distribution  of  the  forces  to  the  east  and  south, 
and  for  aggressive  movements  on  Turkey  and  Persia. 
There  is  but  one  bridge  over  the  Kur  in  the  city.  The 
principal  structures  and  objects  of  interest  in  the  town 
are  the  government  buildings,  the  barracks  and  arsenal 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  river,  and  the  palace  of  the 
grand  duke  on  the  south.  The  duchess  has  under  her 
patronage  a  school  for  young  ladies,  for  the  use  of 
which  a  fine  building  has  been  erected.  A  large  park 
in  the  central  part  of  the  city  is  frequented  by  the 
people  at  all  times,  especially  on  the  Sabbath.  The 
Sabbath  is  a  market  day,  when  the  contents  of  the 
shops  are  turned  into  the  streets,  and  the  principal 
streets  are  blocked  with  country  carts  and  hucksters. 


IX.] 


PO  TE—BA  TO  UM. 


185 


It  is  from  this  custom  of  the  Russians  that  the  Moham¬ 
medans  of  Turkey  have  been  led  in  derision,  to  name 
the  Christian  Sabbath,  “  Bazaar  Guen,  or  Market  Day.” 
The  distance  from  Tiflis  to  Pote  is  one  hundred  and 
seventy-nine  versts.  There  is  a  heavy  grade  to  the 
summit  of  the  watershed  between  the  Kur  and  the 
Black  Sea.  In  a  part  of  the  way  the  road  follows  the 
valley  of  the  Rion 1  River,  at  the  mouth  of  which  Pote 
is  situated.  It  is  said  that  there  was  great  mortality 
among  the  workmen  who  constructed  the  railway 
through  the  swamps  near  the  Black  Sea.  This  en¬ 
tire  region  is  noted  for  malaria,  and  the  fatal  effects 
of  the  climate  on  all  Europeans  who  remain  a  long 
time  here,  if  their  life  is  such  as  to  make  exposure 
necessary. 

Pote  is  a  miserable  little  village  of  about  one  thou¬ 
sand  souls.  It  has  no  harbour.  Large  ships  cannot 
cross  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  must,  there¬ 
fore,  lie  in  the  roadstead.  Efforts  are  being  made  by 
the  government  to  construct  a  harbour,  but  without 
success.  Small  steamers,  drawing  no  more  than  three 
or  four  feet  of  water,  are  able  to  cross  the  bar,  and  ply 
between  this  place  and  Batoum,  a  distance  of  fifty 
miles ;  and  between  this  and  Suakim,  on  the  northern 
shore  of  the  sea.  The  people  of  Pote  have  an  abiding 
recollection  of  the  fabled  sheep  of  the  golden  fleece, 
and  claim  that  it  was  on  the  banks  of  the  Rion  that 
this  famous  animal  was  to  be  found.  The  stranger  who 


1  The  ancient  Phasis. 


i86 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


remains  with  them  a  day  will  judge  that  the  people 
have  conjectured  that  sheep  with  the  golden  fleece  are 
natives  of  some  other  land  than  this. 

Batoum  has  the  advantage  of  a  deep,  though  small, 
natural  harbour.  The  town  contains  some  three  or 
four  thousand  people.  There  is  here  only  a  small 
tract  of  land  between  the  sea  and  the  precipitous 
side  of  the  mountains.  This  place,  and  quite  all  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  resembles  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Caspian  in  the  humidity  of  the  air,  the 
abundance  of  rain,  and  in  the  prevalence  of  malaria. 

There  is  a  custom  house  at  Pote.  The  rigour  of  the 
Russian  customs  has  quite  broken  up  the  transit  of 
goods  through  the  Caucasus  to  Persia,  and  trade  now 
seeks  the  old  route  by  way  of  Trebizond  and  Khoy. 
This  severity  may  have  been  necessary  to  break  up  exten¬ 
sive  systems  of  smuggling  goods  into  the  country.  But 
the  impression  prevails  that  it  was  a  part  of  a  scheme 
in  the  interest  of  Russian  trade  and  Russian  manu¬ 
factures.  The  railway  which  was  projected  in  1875  to 
run  from  Tiflis  to  Baku  has  been  completed.  The 
acquisition  of  Batoum  by  Russia  has  changed  some¬ 
what  the  line  of  traffic,  and  Pote  has  lost  importance. 
A  railway  has  been  made  from  Batoum  to  Tiflis.  This 
gives  connection  by  rail  of  the  Black  and  the  Caspian 
Seas.  The  entire  line  was  completed  and  opened  in 
1883.  The  Caucasus  is  thus  made  an  important  em¬ 
porium,  and  favourable  point  for  the  concentration  of 
troops  for  the  regions  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  But  in 


IX.] 


RUSSIAN  CUSTOMS. 


187 


these  changes  Tiflis  has  lost  much  of  its  importance, 
and  of  its  population,  and  Baku  promises  to  be  its 
successful  rival. 

A  very  fair  opportunity  for  judging  of  the  people, 
and  of  the  condition  of  this  country,  is  afforded  by  a 
journey  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Black  Sea.  Ihe 
masses  of  the  people  are  certainly  very  low  in  the 
scale  of  civilization,  and  need  not  only  a  strong  gov¬ 
ernment  which  they  have,  but  also  need  vigourous 
measures  for  their  improvement  in  general  intelli¬ 
gence.  There  are  certain  orders  of  men  distinctly 
Russian  in  character  to  be  seen  here  and  in  every  other 
place  in  Russia.  They  are  the  priests  and  the  military. 
The  former  are  distinguished  by  flowing  beards,  tall 
velvet  hats,  and  long  black  gowns.  The  military  man 
is  conspicuous  by  the  white  cap,  and  the  sword  dang¬ 
ling  at  his  side.  The  people  of  the  different  races  and 
religions  are  known  by  difference  of  speech,  feature, 
and  costume. 

All  proselytism  is  prohibited  by  Russian  law.  Mis¬ 
sionary  work  is  considered  to  be  such,  and  is,  there¬ 
fore,  not  tolerated.  Agents  of  the  British  and  For¬ 
eign  Bible  Society  are  permitted  to  sell  the  Scriptures, 
but  in  time  past  the  same  privilege  has  been  refused 
the  American  Bible  Society.  This,  for  one  of  two 
reasons,  doubtless,  either  because  American  agents 
are  of  uncongenial  political  sentiments,  or  because  it 
would  be  contrary  to  the  policy  of  the  government  to 
allow  any  competition  in  the  field  of  religious  enter- 


1 88 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[ix. 


prise.  The  agents  of  the  former  society  have  been 
very  successful  in  the  line  of  their  work,  and  have 
shown  a  spirit  and  enterprise  worthy  of  the  race  to 
which  they  belong,  and  of  the  cause,  which  they 
represent.  The  Russian  government  maintains  in  the 
Caucasus  a  system  of  free  schools,  and  aid  is  given  by 
it  to  class  or  private  schools.  The  religious  distinc¬ 
tions  of  the  different  sects  are  so  marked,  and  any 
change  of  religious  opinion  so  strongly  prohibited,  and 
so  severely  punished,  that  a  national  system  of  educa¬ 
tion  is  made  wellnigh  impracticable.  Education  is  not 
compulsory,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  native  pop¬ 
ulation  is,  by  religious  faith,  opposed  to  the  public 
schools.  The  country,  though  naturally  fertile,  is 
largely  desert.  The  methods  of  agriculture  are  the 
same  as  are  to  be  seen  in  Persia,  and  are  yet  of  the 
primitive  sort. 

I  need  not  give  here  any  account  of  my  return  by 
this  route  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  to  Persia.  After 
the  usual  experiences  of  the  Caspian,  at  this  season, 
and  after  the  tedious  journey  by  caravan,  I  arrived  in 
Tehran  on  the  8th  of  December. 


CHAPTER  X. 


From  Tehran  to  Mashhad — Plain  of  Varomene — Site  of  Raghes — Ar- 
sacia —  I  he  Jorje  Rud — Awanakafe — Passes  of  the  Elburz  and  Roads 
—  I  he  Sardarak — Ruins — Conjectures  as  to  the  Pass  called  the  Caspian 
Gates — Singular  Speech  of  Simnon — Water  Supply — The  Kalah  of 
Losgird — Simnon — The  Mosque  of  Fattah  Ale  Shah — The  Plain  of 
Damgan — Ride  to  Dah  Mullah — To  Shah  Rud — To  Khairabad — 
The  Azon — Maia  Mai — Meon  Dasht — The  Cisterns — Narrative  of 
Captivity  among  Turkmans — Situation  of  Meon  Dasht— March  to 
Abasabad — The  Springs — The  Chasm — Situation  of  Abasabad — Cur¬ 
ious  Marriage  Custom — Route  between  Abasabad  and  Mazenan — The 
■  Kara  Su — Sadrabad — Mazenan — Mahr — To  Sabzewar — City  of  Sab- 
zewar — Dangers  of  Travel  by  Caravan — Missionaries  of  the  Bab — 
Ride  to  Zafaran — To  Shore  Aub — The  Station  Shore  Aub — Road  to 
Nishapoor — Cheman — Plain  of  Nishapoor — The  City — Antiquity  of 
the  Place — Schools — Turquoise  Mines — Persian  Serpent  and  Scorpion 
Charmers. 

The  distance  from  Tehran  to  the  city  called  Mashhad 
the  Holy,  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  farasangs,1  or  about 
six  hundred  miles.  The  most  frequented  route  follows 
the  southern  skirt  of  the  Elburz,  and  the  border  of 
the  desert  of  Khorasan.  It  crosses  many  arms  of  the 
desert  and  mountain  ridges  ;  but  shuns  alike  the  broad 

1  This  word  is  written  in  Persian  both  farsang  and  parsang.  It  is 
commonly  pronounced  with  three  syllables,  and  as  if  spelled  with  a 
final  k.  The  word  is  a  compound  of  far  and  sang ;  the  latter  means 
a  stone  ;  the  meaning  of  the  former  term  is  not  known.  The  estimated 

189 


190 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


morasses  and  the  precipitous  peaks.  In  the  spring  time 
a  few  small  rivers,  flowing  from  the  Elburz,  cross  this 
road  on  their  way  to  the  plains  on  the  south.  In  the 
summer  season  there  remains  no  more  than  the  dry 
and  stony  bed  to  show  the  course  of  these  streams. 
Another  route  may  be  taken  for  a  good  part  of  the  first 
half  of  the  way.  It  crosses  some  of  the  highest  moun¬ 
tains  of  the  Elburz,  and  is  practicable  in  summer  only. 
Although  rugged  and  high,  it  gives  relief  from  the  in¬ 
tense  heat  of  the  plain,  and  brings  the  traveller  into 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Damavand.  On  the  first 
route  there  is  a  chapar,  and  a  telegraph  line  to  Mash¬ 
had.  This  is  the  road  commonly  taken  by  caravans, 
and  by  pilgrims.  It  suited  my  purpose  to  go  by  this 
route,  and  to  travel  by  chapar.  I  left  Tehran  on  the 
morning  of  April  17th,  1878. 

length  of  a  farasang  varies  with  the  unit  of  measure.  A  Persian  lexi¬ 
cographer  says  that  the  farasang  is  equal  to  three  meel,  and  every  meel 
to  four  thousand  gaz,  and  every  gaz  to  twenty-four  fingers  of  the  hand 
placed  side  by  side,  or  to  the  length  of  six  fists  placed  side  by  side. 
This  would  make  the  gaz  equal  to  the  long  cubit,  and  I  therefore 
reckon,  on  good  authority,  the  farasang  to  be  equal  to  four  English 
miles,  although  it  may  be  less  or  more  than  this.  The  Persian  gov¬ 
ernment  has  enacted  that  the  legal  farasang  be  six  thousand  zarhs.  The 
zarh  is  a  standard  measure  of  forty-one  inches  length.  In  this  case  the 
gaz  or  cubit,  is  equal  to  twenty  and  one-half  inches.  This  measure  cor¬ 
responds  to  the  length  of  the  farasang  as  formerly  reckoned  in  Persia.  In 
the  absence  of  accurate  measurements  of  distances,  the  length  of  the 
farasang  would  vary  somewhat  with  the  nature  of  the  country.  The 
length  of  a  farasang  seems,  however,  to  be  quite  the  same,  if  one  may 
judge  from  the  time  and  speed  required  to  travel  over  the  distance  so 
named. 


X.] 


SITE  OF  R AGUES. 


191 

After  a  ride  of  near  two  hours,  in  a  southeasterly 
course,  over  the  plain  of  Tehran,  we  reached  the  high¬ 
est  point  of  the  ridge  which  separates  the  plains  of 
Tehran  and  Varomene.  At  the  southwestern  extrem¬ 
ity  of  this  ridge  is  the  city  of  Shah  Abd  al  Azeem  and 
the  ruins  of  Ra.  On  the  left  hand  and  north,  the  El¬ 
burz  Mountains,  of  the  Jorje  Rud  region,  and  vicinity 
of  Damavand.  In  front  and  on  the  south,  an  extended 
plain,  which  in  many  parts  of  it  appeared  to  be  well 
watered,  and  well  under  cultivation.  This  plain  is  at 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  valley  which  rises  at  Sul- 
taneah,  and  may  be  said  to  be  in  the  border  of  the  des¬ 
ert  of  Khorasan.  On  its  eastern  extremity  is  the  con¬ 
jectured  site  of  the  ancient  Raghes.  The  name  Varo¬ 
mene  is  believed  by  some  writers  to  represent  the 
Varena,  and  Raghes  the  Ragha  of  the  Vendidad  of 
Sade,  mentioned  as  stations  in  the  wanderings  of  the 
Arians.  Some  writers  have  located  the  site  of  Arsacia, 
the  reputed  residence  of  the  founder  of  the  Parthian 
dynasty,  in  the  plain  southeast  of  Varomene. 

Descending  to  the  plain  we  crossed  the  Jorje  Rud  at 
a  point  a  little  south  of  Kabud  Gumbaz.  The  mountain 
stream  had  a  depth  of  three  feet  in  one  of  the  many 
channels,  and  a  width  of  one  hundred  feet,  flowing 
with  great  rapidity.  In  the  summer  season  the  chan¬ 
nels  are  quite  dry.  We  remained  for  the  night  at 
Awanakafe.  This  is  a  village  of  one  hundred  houses, 
and  is  divided  by  a  small  river  of  that  name.  The 
name  itself  is  a  compound  word  quite  significant, 


192 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


meaning  the  hall  of  pleasure.  It  furnishes  no  ground 
for  the  legend  of  a  drunken  king,  but  was  given  prob¬ 
ably  to  the  modern  village  as  significant  of  its  being  a 
place  of  rest  and  refreshment.  There  is  a  road  hence 
to  Koom,  and  to  the  Feruz  Kuh  pass.  The  latter 
road  would  be  the  direct  one  from  the  south  to  Dama¬ 
vand,  and  is  supposed  by  some  persons  to  have  been 
the  celebrated  pass  called  the  Caspian  Gates. 

The  stage  of  the  second  day  led  us  through  the 
Sardarak.  This  is  a  name  given  to  a  tortuous  chasm 
through  a  spur  of  the  mountains  which  here  extends 
from  the  main  range  into  the  plain.  The  western 
entrance  is  some  six  or  eight  miles  eastward  from 
Awanakafe.  The  whole  length  of  the  gorge  is  about 
four  miles  to  the  plain  on  the  eastern  side.  Near  the 
entrance  on  the  west  are  the  ruins  of  an  old  watch 
tower.  The  ruins  of  several  other  like  structures 
crowned  the  summits  of  the  hills  above.  These  were 
in  positions  which  gave  a  command  of  portions  of  the 
valley.  This  chasm  has  been  supposed  to  be  the 
veritable  Caspian  Gates  through  which  Darius  fled  as 
he  was  pursued  by  Alexander.  But  it  seems  hardly 
probable  that  a  passage  of  this  sort,  from  one  part  of  a 
plain  to  another  portion  of  the  same  plain,  would  be 
considered  the  pass  of  the  Elburz,  or  as  in  any  way  to 
be  named  with  the  Caspian. 

The  post  rider  said  that  at  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  pass  there  is  a  well,  the  water  of  which  always  has 
the  colour  of  blood.  This  peculiarity  of  the  water  was 


X.] 


If  A  LA  IIS— -IMP  OR  TANCE. 


m 


owing  to  the  fact,  so  he  said,  that  in  former  times, 
when  the  pass  was  infested  with  robbers,  the  bodies 
of  the  people  slain  by  them  were  thrown  into  a  cavern 
which  was  at  one  time  in  this  locality.  When  the  roof 
of  the  cave  fell,  this  pit  remained  to  mark  the  spot, 
and  the  water  which  rose  in  it  ever  continued  to  be 
blood.  On  reaching  the  end  of  the  gorge,  he  was 
urged  to  point  out  the  pit.  He  rode  up  to  a  well 
which  was  filled  with  water  having  the  colour  of  the 
clay  about  it.  On  the  right  of  the  eastern  end  of  the 
pass,  and  some  distance  from  it,  is  a  large  mound. 
This  is  apparently  the  ruin  of  an  old  kalah.  It  is 
probably  the  remnant  of  one  of  the  citadels  called 
kalahs,  which  were  once  constructed  at  convenient 
intervals  on  this  road.  On  riding  from  Kishlak  to  Dah 
Namak,  or  Salt  Village,  I  passed  the  old  kalahs  called 
Yatre,  Aradune  and  Pa  Dah.  They  are  in  a  fair  con¬ 
dition  and  inhabited  as  villages.  These  structures  are 
of  sun-dried  brick,  and  are  several  stories  high.  At  a 
distance  they  resemble  the  immense  blocks  of  stone  or 
brick  to  be  seen  in  the  large  cities  of  Europe.  At 
Dah  Namak  the  kalah  is  a  ruin.  It  was  built  in  this 
manner :  first  a  wall  of  sun-dried  brick  was  con¬ 
structed  to  a  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet ;  within  this 
were  huts.  These  in  time  went  to  ruin.  Then  the 
structure  was  repaired,  and  other  small  houses  built 
upon  the  ruins  of  the  old  dwellings.  At  this  time  the 
roofs  of  the  hovels  are  wellnigh  on  a  level  with  the 
top  of  the  wall. 

*3 


194 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


I  noticed  here  that  the  people  spoke  a  strange 
speech.  On  inquiry,  I  learned  that  it  is  called  Sim- 
nonee,  and  derives  its  name  from  that  of  the  city  of 
Simnon.  This  tongue  is  spoken  in  Dah  Namak,  Los- 
gird,  Simnon,  and  some  other  villages.  It  is  a  jargon 
of  Kurd  and  old  Persian. 

The  process  of  bread-making  was  carried  on  in  the 
public  common  by  the  women  of  the  town.  Owing 
to  the  large  number  of  caravans,  and  of  pilgrims  pass¬ 
ing  over  this  highway,  there  is  here  a  demand  for 
bread  which  occasions  quite  a  business  for  the  bakeries. 
These  were  all  in  front  of  the  houses,  and  consist  of 
a  bank  of  earth  made  smooth  and  levelled  on  top,  and 
covered  with  cement  or  a  pavement  of  brick.  In  the 
pavement  were  the  holes  called  tanours,  or  ovens. 
Two  or  three  women  sat  on  each  terrace  engaged  with 
this  work.  As  I  wanted  to  see  the  process  of  bread¬ 
making  as  carried  on  in  a  systematic  way,  I  went  to 
one  of  the  terraces.  One  of  the  women  immediately 
offered  a  cake  of  bread.  When  I  informed  her  that  I 
had  come  to  see  the  bread  made,  they  all  fell  to  work 
with  a  will.  One  woman  mixed  the  flour  and  passed 
it  to  another,  who  kneaded  it  and  rolled  it  with  a  wooden 
roller.  With  a  dexterous  movement  of  her  hands  she 
took  the  cake  of  dough  upon  the  tips  of  the  fingers, 
causing  it  to  revolve  until  it  became  thin  as  a  knife 
blade.  She  then  passed  it  to  a  third  woman,  who  re¬ 
ceived  the  cake  upon  a  pad,  over  which  it  was  sti  etched 
to  the  full  size.  A  fourth  woman  took  up  the  pad  with 


X.] 


DAH  NAMAK—L  OSGIRD — SIMNON. 


195 


her  right  hand,  and,  kneeling  over  the  side  of  the  fire¬ 
less  though  hot  oven,  with  a  quick  motion  dashed  the 
dough  against  the  cemented  side,  where  it  was  soon 
done  and  browned,  and  whence  it  was  quickly  re¬ 
moved.  The  supply  of  water  in  much  of  the  way  is 
from  cisterns  called  Aub  Umbar.  These  differ  from 
the  cisterns  of  the  cities  by  being  constructed  with 
muqfc  less  care.  They  are  often  mere  holes  filled  with 
water  and  covered  with  an  arched  roof  of  brick.  All 
the  water  of  the  connaughts  is  brackish.  Fortunately 
the  people  in  many  of  the  towns  put  up  ice.  The  pil¬ 
grims  are  glad  to  purchase  ice  as  well  as  bread. 

The  distance  from  Dah  Namak  to  Losgird  is  eight 
farasangs.  There  are  no  villages  between  these 
stations.  There  are  mountains  of  gypsum  near  the 
latter  place,  and  by  their  bleached  appearance  con¬ 
tribute  to  the  dreary  aspect  of  this  region.  The  old 
citadel  at  Losgird  is  the  most  imposing  structure  of 
the  kind  to  be  seen  on  this  route.  The  walls  are  very 
high,  and  the  front  has  two  porches.  Vines  were 
growing  over  the  walls,  and  partially  concealed  some 
of  the  door-ways.  Quite  a  number  of  people  occupied 
the  kalah,  living  in  the  topmost  rooms.  Halting  here 
but  a  few  moments  to  change  horses,  we  rode  on  to 
Simnon. 

This  is  a  city  of  ten  thousand  people.  The  poll-tax 
is  paid  by  one  thousand  males.  Although  the  people 
speak  the  modern  Persian,  yet  among  themselves  they 
use  the  Simnonee.  There  is  a  story  descriptive  of  this 


196 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


jargon  which  is  often  told  by  people  of  this  region. 
It  is,  that  one  of  the  kings  of  Persia  appointed  a 
learned  man  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  various 
dialects  and  languages  of  Persia.  The  savant  traversed 
the  kingdom  in  the  prosecution  of  his  mission.  On 
his  return  to  the  court  he  was  given  an  audience  by 
the  king.  The  courtiers  and  great  men  were  assem¬ 
bled.  He  discoursed  in  a  learned  manner  0%  the 
different  tribes  he  had  seen,  and  of  the  many  tongues 
he  had  heard.  At  length  he  came  to  speak  of  the 
people  of  Simnon.  He  now  remained  silent  a  moment, 
and,  taking  an  empty  gourd,  he  put  into  it  a  few 
small  stones ;  then  holding  the  gourd  up  and  shaking 
it,  he  cried  out,  “  Here  you  have  the  language  of 
Simnon.” 

The  principal  structure  of  the  town  is  the  mosque 
of  the  Shah,  built  by  the  order  of  Fattah  Ale  Shah. 
When  we  rode  up  to  it,  several  mullahs  were  reclining 
in  the  gateway,  and  invited  me  to  enter.  I  was  not 
permitted  to  go  into  the  Joie  Namaz,  or  place  of 
prayer ;  but  I  could  easily  see  all  there  was  of  that 
holy  place,  from  the  court.  The  court  itself  is  sixty 
paces  square.  In  the  centre  of  each  side  there  is  a 
lofty  arched  doorway  which  is  faced  with  glazed  tiles. 
The  mambar  or  pulpit  was  made  wholly  of  alabaster 
and  consisted  of  fifteen  steps.  The  entire  stairway 
was  about  three-quarters  of  a  yard  wide.  The  en¬ 
trance  to  the  city  is  made  through  extensive  ceme¬ 
teries.  These  and  many  structures  in  the  town  give 


X.] 


THE  PLAIN  OF  DAMGAN. 


197 


evidence  of  great  age.  In  the  city  there  are  many 
very  large  and  high  buildings  which  seem  to  have  been 
for  defense.  On  the  south  of  the  city  there  are  kabeers 1 
which  are  reported  to  cover  a  great  expanse  of  the 
desert  Only  experienced  camel  drivers  can  pass  these 
marshes.  These  men  are  said  to  have  learned  the  in¬ 
tricate  ways  by  which  the  desert  is  to  be  penetrated, 
from  herding  their  camels  in  these  regions.  In  the 
journey  hence  to  Yezd  there  is  a  part  of  the  way  re¬ 
quiring  twelve  days’  travel,  in  which  no  human  habita¬ 
tion  and  no  water  is  to  be  found.  Fresh  water  must 
be  carried  over  this  distance.  The  camels  can  do 
without  water  for  five  or  six  days.  Rock  salt  is  ob¬ 
tained  in  the  vicinity  of  Simnon. 

The  distance  hence  to  Damgan  is  said  to  be  twenty- 
two  farasangs.  We  left  Simnon  in  the  morning  and 
entered  Damgan  at  five  o’clock  in  the  afternoon. 
Ahuon,  and  Da  Kasse  are  names  of  post  houses  situ¬ 
ated  between  these  two  cities.  The  approach  to 
Damgan  is  over  a  broad  plain,  a  fertile  border  of  the 
great  desert.  The  plain  is  very  level,  and  gives  evi¬ 
dence  of  having  been  cultivated  much  more  exten¬ 
sively  than  it  is  now.  Damgan  is  a  town  of  about  five 
thousand  people.  The  bazaars  are  going  to  ruin,  and 
the  place  has  not  the  appearance  of  prosperity.  The 
best  preserved  and  only  remaining  old  structures  are  two 
minars  connected  with  mosques.  One  is  called  Chehil 
Sutune,  and  the  other  Maschide  Jam.  The  latter  has 

1  The  kabeer  is  the  name  of  a  morass  in  the  desert. 


198 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[x. 


two  katebah.  These  are  bands  of  tiling  with  raised 
Kufee  letters.  In  each  minaret  there  is  a  stairway  to 
the  top  of  the  structure.  The  mosques  attached  to 
the  minarets  are  of  sun-dried  brick,  and  are  evidently 
of  much  later  construction  than  the  minars.  These 
are  of  red  brick,  and  of  a  workmanship  which  refers 
them  to  an  early  date  after  the  Mohammedan  conquest. 

Some  travellers  have  assumed  that  the  site  of  Dam- 
gan  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  ancients  Hecatompylos. 
This  ancient  capital  of  Parthia  is  believed  by  Rawlin- 
son  to  have  been  much  further  east  than  Damgan,  and 
to  have  been  in  the  borders  of  Turkistan.  Sir  K. 
Porter  wildly  conjectures  that  Parthia  proper  was 
identical  with  the  province  called  Mazandaran,  and 
that  Hecatompylos  occupied  the  site  now  covered  by 
Ispahan. 

A  ride  of  six  farasangs  over  a  level  plain  brought 
us  to  Dah  Mullah.  This  village  stands  near  the 
mouth  of  a  valley  which  unites  with  the  desert  in  the 
plains  of  Damgan.  The  mountains  are  quite  near  the 
village  on  the  north.  On  that  side  of  the  village  there 
is  a  row  of  small  towers  a  few  yards  apart,  and  which 
extends  to  the  steep  sides  of  the  mountain.  Similar 
structures  are  to  be  seen  on  the  plain,  and  in  quite  all 
the  way  to  Mashhad.  They  were  erected  as  a  defense 
against  the  attacks  of  the  Turkmans.  As  these 
nomads  make  their  attacks  on  horseback  and  with 
swords,  they  are  quite  powerless  against  so  simple  a 
defense  as  a  mud  tower.  In  this  the  Persian  can  con- 


X.] 


KHAIRABAD. 


199 


ceal  himself,  and  by  using  fire-arms  can  resist  a  supe¬ 
rior  number  of  the  enemy.  The  road  from  Dah 
Mullah  to  Shah  Rud,  a  distance  of  four  farasangs, 
passes  over  a  rough  and  dreary  country.  The  name 
Shah  Rud,  meaning  king  river,  is  given  to  a  small 
village  through  which  a  small  stream  of  water  flows 
from  the  Elburz.  The  place  has  gained  some  im¬ 
portance  from  having  been  a  military  post,  and  owing 
to  the  fact  that  it  was  formerly  more  than  now,  on  the 
border  of  the  Turkman  country.  All  the  people  of 
this  village  were  Mohammedans  except  six  young 
men,  Armenians,  who  were  living  here  for  the  purpose 
of  trade. 

I  learned  before  leaving  Tehran  that  a  military 
escort,  which  I  was  advised  to  join,  left  Khairabad 
twice  each  month  to  accompany  caravans  and  pilgrims 
to  Mazenan,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  miles.  This  stretch  of  the  country  is  called  the 
Joie  Khof,  or  place  of  fear.  It  is  so  named  because  of 
the  fact  that  the  raids  of  the  Turkmans  have  been 
made  over  this  tract  of  country.  The  escort  is  fur¬ 
nished  by  the  Shah’s  government.  It  then  left 
Khairabad  on  the  fifth  and  nineteenth  of  every  month. 

It  was  near  sunset  when  we  rode  into  Khairabad. 
The  name  means  good  abode  or  no  abode,  according 
as  the  first  word  of  this  compound  term  is  understood. 
The  latter  signification  seemed  to  be  the  more  appro¬ 
priate,  as  there  was  no  house  in  the  place,  except  the 
deserted  ruins  of  a  village  which  had  been  forsaken  on 


200 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


account  of  the  severity  of  the  famine  or  from  fear  of 
Turkmans.  I  threw  a  rug  upon  the  ground,  and  upon 
it  some  of  the  luggage,  and  sat  down  to  rest,  having 
ridden  during  the  day,  about  sixty  miles,  and  having 
in  prospect  a  ride  which  was  to  continue  until  morn¬ 
ing.  The  people  to  compose  the  caravan  had  been 
assembling  during  several  days,  and  consisted  of  the 
followers  of  Ale  from  many  countries.  There  were 
Tartars  from  Russia,  Turkey,  and  Afghanistan,  and 
Persians  from  quite  every  province.  There  were 
dervishes  from  India,  and  from  the  borders  of  Egypt ; 
princes  and  rich  men  from  Tehran  and  other  cities, 
and  a  crowd  of  common  people  from  the  villages. 
Many  persons  went  on  foot;  some  on  horses;  a  large 
number  were  mounted  on  donkeys,  and  others  rode 
camels.  The  escort  consisted  of  thirty  cavalry,  twenty- 
five  infantry,  and  a  six-pound  gun,  which  was  drawn 
by  three  span  of  horses.  I  counted  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  mules  and  horses,  there  must  have  been  as 
many  donkeys,  and  there  was  a  large  number  of  foot¬ 
men. 

I  wished  to  know  more  of  the  necessity  for  all  these 
precautions  to  protect  the  caravan ;  and  so,  turning  to 
a  Persian  merchant,  I  said,  “  How  is  it  that  our  road 
for  the  next  four  days’  travel  is  more  infested  by  Turk¬ 
mans  than  any  other  part  of  the  way  ?  ”  In  reply  he 
pointed  to  the  northeast,  saying,  “  You  see  that  moun¬ 
tain  yonder;  it  is  only  ten  or  twelve  farasangs  distant; 
on  the  other  side  of  it  are  the  Turkmans.”  The 


X.] 


MODE  OF  STARTING  A  CARAVAN. 


201 


Goklan  Turkmans  inhabit  the  country  on  the  north 
of  the  mountains,  and  profess  allegiance  to  the  Shah  ; 
but  they  are  more  friendly  to  the  Takahs  than  they 
are  to  the  Persians,  and  would  not  prevent  the  Takahs 
from  passing  the  border  if  they  could.  The  contour 
of  the  country  is  favourable  to  their  raids.  The  passes 
are  not  difficult,  and  the  country  is  not  so  rough  as  to 
prevent  the  use  of  horses.  But  after  four  days’  jour¬ 
ney  the  road  turns  to  the  south,  and  the  mountain 
ranges  are  higher,  and  egress  is  more  difficult  to  those 
who  would  escape  to  the  northward. 

As  darkness  and  the  hour  of  starting  came  on,  the 
people  went  forward  at  will,  and  without  order,  crying 
in  chorus,  “  Ya  Ale  !  Ya  Ale  !  ”  It  was  understood  to 
be  safe  to  go  several  miles  beyond  Khairabad  without 
a  guard.  Three  signals  were  given  by  firing  the  big 
gun  ;  the  first  signal  to  denote  the  time  for  feeding  the 
horses,  and  for  the  evening  meal ;  the  second  to  make 
ready  the  baggage ;  and  the  third  for  the  start.  After 
these  signals  had  been  given,  the  horses  were  hitched 
to  the  gun  carriage,  and  driven  off  at  a  gallop.  This 
gait  was  kept  up  for  the  space  of  an  hour  in  order  to 
overtake  the  people  who  had  gone  forward.  Then  a 
halt  was  ordered  that  all  might  come  up.  The  cavalry 
formed  on  either  side  the  gun,  the  infantry  advanced 
to  the  front,  and  there  was  a  general  gathering  of  forces 
and  putting  on  of  battle  array,  preparatory  to  passing 
a  ravine  or  a  hill,  said  to  be  a  “  Place  of  Fear.”  These 
manoeuvres  were  gone  through  with  at  intervals,  during 


202 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


the  greater  part  of  the  night,  as  the  caravan  approached 
the  so-called  Joie  Khof.  At  one  time  it  was  reported 
that  Turkmans  had  been  seen.  The  caravan  halted ; 
the  gun  was  brought  into  position;  the  cavalrymen 
started  off  in  every  direction  as  scouts  to  see  whence 
the  attack  would  come.  They  rode  in  wide  circuits 
and  came  with  a  mad  run  to  the  vicinity  of  the  caravan. 
The  women  and  children  began  to  cry,  and  the  men  to 
shout.  The  scouts  returned  with  the  report  that  no 
Turkmans  could  be  seen,  and  the  train  moved  on. 

The  first  half  of  the  night  was  whiled  away  by  many 
persons  in  talking  of  the  country,  the  Turkmans  and 
their  adventures ;  of  the  attacks  made,  and  battles 
fought  here  and  there  by  these  raiders ;  of  their  mode 
of  attack  ;  of  their  weapons,  horses,  food,  country  and 
religion.  Some  persons  could  speak  from  the  experi¬ 
ences  of  captivity.  To  the  uninitiated  in  that  multi¬ 
tude,  every  ravine  became  a  lurking  place  of  a  Turk¬ 
man,  and  every  hill  a  breastwork  above  which  the 
head  of  a  Turkman  is  seen  to  be  peering.  The  whole 
caravan  seemed  to  have — as  the  whole  country  has — 
a  nightmare,  in  which  the  chief  actor  is  a  Turkman 
armed  with  sabre,  mounted  on  his  well-known  horse, 
and  charging  over  every  desolate  plain  and  deserted 
valley.  The  pilgrims  sang  frequently.  The  footmen 
led  the  song,  the  chief  theme  of  which  was  the  bless¬ 
ing  of  the  prophets,  who  were  “a  hundred  thousand.” 
The  song  often  contained  a  short  panegyric  on  some 
one  in  the  company,  but  uniformly  closed  with  an 


x.]  MODE  OF  HALTING  A  CARAVAN.  203 

allusion  to  the  place  of  the  Saint,  the  prophet’s  throne, 
and  the  repeat  of  a  salavaut,  in  which  all  the  people 
united  their  voices,  with  the  braying  of  donkeys, 
grunting  of  camels,  barking  of  dogs,  and  crying  of 
babies. 

In  the  intervals  between  the  singing  might  be 
heard  the  trained  voice  of  a  dervish,  ringing  through 
the  darkness,  “  Ya  Ale  !  Ya  Ale  !  Ya  Ale  !  Ya  hak  ! 1 
Yahak!  Ya  hak !  hak !”  But  long  time  before  the 
rising  of  the  morning  star,  the  singers  ceased  their 
singing,  the  crowd  had  lengthened  into  a  wavering 
belt  several  miles  long,  now  seen  by  the  dim  moon¬ 
light.  Men  were  nodding  and  falling  off  the  beasts 
on  which  they  were  riding,  for  at  last  drowsiness  be¬ 
came  stronger  than  the  fear  of  the  Turkman.  The 
infantry  had  become  cavalry,  mounted  on  borrowed 
donkeys  and  mules.  The  voice  of  the  dervish  was 
heard  after  long  intervals  only,  sounding  like  the 
ominous  hoot  of  an  owl,  “  Ya  hoo ! "  Ya  hoo !  Ya 
hoo  !  hoo  !  hoo  !  00  !  ” 

At  early  dawn,  as  the  gun  was  dragged  forward  by 
the  horses  driven  again  at  the  gallop,  there  was  a  rush. 
Then  the  blast  of  a  bugle,  the  signal  for  a  halt,  and 
the  gathering  ok  the  pilgrims.  The  Azon 3  was  now 
called,  carpets  and  garments  were  cast  upon  the  ground, 
and  the  people  bowed  to  the  ground  and  in  reverent 
silence  toward  Mekkah.  The  summary  of  the  days 

1  The  name  of  God,  also  of  a  right,  the  alms  of  the  poor. 

2  A  name  of  God.  8  the  call  to  prayer. 


204 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


work  of  the  people  who  travel  thus  by  night  is  soon 
told.  It  is  sleep,  eating  and  drinking.  The  last  act 
might,  however,  be  left  out  of  the  account  in  a  land  of 
cisterns  and  salt  water. 

The  village  where  the  caravan  halted  is  called  Maia 
Mai.  It  consisted  of  a  cluster  of  houses  inclosed  by 
a  high  wall,  a  caravansary,  and  a  chapar  khanah,  and 
possessed  the  usual  features  of  a  Persian  town, — a  high 
mountain  on  one  side,  a  plain,  a  rill  of  water  flowing 
from  the  mountain,  and  a  few  fields  on  the  plain,  testi¬ 
fying  by  their  verdure  to  the  quantity  and  virtue  of 
the  rill.  Near  the  gate  of  the  village  a  dervish  dis¬ 
coursed  to  a  crowd  of  boys  and  girls  concerning  the 
prophets.  The  likenesses  of  these  revered  persons 
painted  upon  a  large  canvas  were  suspended  on  the 
wall  of  the  village  to  the  delight  of  the  little  folks. 
The  second  night  seemed  to  be  a  repetition  of  the 
first  in  all  essentials,  except  in  the  dawn  succeeding, 
and  disclosing  another  station  in  the  desert. 

Meon  Dasht  is  the  name  given  to  a  station  situated, 
as  the  name  denotes,  in  the  midst  of  the  desert.  It  is 
also  midway  of  Khairabad  and  Mazenan.  Here  the 
caravans  coming  from  the  east  and  the  west  meet  and 
exchange  escorts.  A  post-house,  a  telegraph  office, 
two  caravansaries,  and  a  village  of  some  ten  houses 
and  two  reservoirs  of  water,  make  up  the  substance  of 
the  establishment.  I  One  of  the  caravansaries  was 
erected  in  the  time  of  Nadir  Shah.  The  other,  a  new 
and  well-constructed  building,  has  been  put  up  re- 


X.] 


ME  ON  DASHT—  WA  TER  SUPPL  Y 


205 


cently  at  the  expense  of  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Tehran, 
and  as  an  act  of  religious  merit. 

Leaving  the  caravan  as  we  came  near  the  station, 
we  were  among  the  first  to  enter  the  gate,  but  the 
western  bound  caravan  had  already  taken  possession. 
My  man  Ibraheem  was  equal  to  the  emergency,  how¬ 
ever  ;  he  is  a  native  of  the  country,  and  trained  in  the 
customs  of  the  land.  He  went  in  haste  to  the  occu¬ 
pant  of  the  best  room,  saying, — “  Get  out  or  take  the 
sticks and  thereupon  began  to  throw  the  man’s  lug¬ 
gage  into  the  hall.  When  I  protested  against  this 
conduct,  he  replied,  in  the  hearing  of  the  ejected  man, 
“  No  matter,  we  will  give  him  ^a  present,”  a  remark 
which  seemed  to  fully  compensate  for  ill  treatment,  if 
we  may  judge  from  his  manner,  and  his  declaration 
that  the  room  is  a  gift,  and  he  himself  my  sacrifice. 
The  place  is  then  swept,  and  the  usual  experiences  of 
a  manzil  begin.  The  water  supply  of  the  station  was 
not  quite  satisfactory  to  me.  The  cistern  is  in  the 
open  court,  although  covered  by  an  arched  roof  of 
brick.  One  end  is  open,  and  the  wind  whirled  dust 
and  chaff  upon  the  water.  The  descent  to  the  water 
was  by  a  short  flight  of  steps,  and  that  precious  fluid 
was  obtained  by  dipping  into  the  cistern  many  kinds 
of  vessels  such  as  the  pilgrims  chose  to  use.  These 
were  jugs,  copper  basins,  cooking  utensils  and  men’s 
hands.  The  water  appeared  to  me  to  have  an  unnatu¬ 
ral  consistency  and  to  be  well-salted.  Near  sunset  I 
determined  to  explore  the  country  lying  outside  of 


206 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


the  walls ;  so  calling  a  young  man  belonging  to  the 
station,  I  said  to  him  that  I  hear  there  is  a  well  of 
water  just  beyond  the  walls.  He  causes  disappoint¬ 
ment  by  saying  that  the  well  is  connected  with  the 
cistern.  His  statement  appeared  to  be  true  that  no 
pure  water  could  be  found  near  the  village. 

As  we  walked  on  toward  a  low  ridge  on  the  western 
side  of  the  station,  he  said  in  substance,  “  It  was  just 
here  that  I  was  gathering  bootah,1  when  a  Turkman 
appeared  near  the  point  of  the  hill  yonder,  and,  riding 
full  tilt,  he  came  up  to  me  and  said,  ‘You  can  work  ?’ 
‘Yes/  I  said.  ‘Then  come  up  here/  he  instantly  re¬ 
plied.  Knowing  resistance  to  be  useless,  I  got  on  to 
the  horse  with  him.  Seizing  my  hands,  he  quickly 
tied  them,  and  then  we  rode  off  at  a  rapid  pace.  When 
we  had  gone  so  far  that  he  felt  no  fear  of  immediate 
pursuit,  he  ordered  me  to  dismount.  My  hands  were 
then  tied  at  my  back,  and  I  was  tied  by  a  cord  to  the 
horse  and  told  that  I  must  keep  up.  When  the  man 
saw  that  I  was  tired  he  gave  me  water  from  the  bottle 
which  he  carried.  At  night  he  gave  me  a  bit  of  bread 
as  large  as  my  hand.  This  was  all  the  food  I  obtained 
during  three  days.  By  the  time  we  had  reached  the 
first  village  he  had  become  convinced  of  my  powers 
of  endurance. 

“My  father/’  he  continued,  “trades  with  Turkmans, 
and  is  useful  to  them  in  negotiating  for  the  redemption 
of  captives.  He  can  go  anywhere  among  them.  He 
1  This  is  the  name  of  a  species  of  thistle  which  is  used  for  fuel. 


X.] 


ME  ON  DASHT— ALTITUDE. 


207 


is  often  a  guide.  He  paid  a  ransom  for  me.  It  was 
agreed  that  he  should  pay  one  hundred  tomans  and 
take  me  in  my  master’s  tent  The  money  was  paid, 
and  we  started  on  our  return.  We  had  not  gone  half 
the  way,  however,  when  a  band  of  Turkmans  came 
upon  us  and  carried  us  both  off  as  captives  to  another 
village.” 

The  altitude  of  Meon  Dasht  above  the  ocean  is  four 
thousand  four  hundred  feet.  On  the  north  are  moun¬ 
tains,  which  appear  to  be  of  no  great  height,  and  which 
are  separated  by  extended  plains.  There  is  a  descent 
from  this  to  the  principal  desert  Neither  tree  nor 
human  habitation  is  to  be  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
station.  The  country  from  Shah  Rud  to  Mazenan  is 
considered  unsafe  for  travellers ;  yet  it  is  passed  over 
at  all  seasons  by  small  parties  of  men.  A  few  weeks 
later,  on  my  return,  I  met  the  Persian  postman.  On 
finding  no  escort  at  the  latter  place,  he  crossed  eleven 
farasangs  of  the  way,  having  no  other  attendant  than 
a  small  boy,  and  having  in  his  charge  a  horse  load  of 
silver  coins.  This  great  change  in  the  state  of  the 
country  was  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  Turkmans 
were  now  at  war  with  Russia,  and  having  concentrated 
all  their  forces  in  the  north,  were  very  anxious  to  cul¬ 
tivate  friendly  relations  with  Persia.  The  caravan 
going  east  left  the  manzil  at  the  rising  of  the  moon. 
We  had  before  us  a  march  of  six  farasangs  to  Abasa- 
bad.  The  country  has  a  continuous  descent,  and  Abas- 
abad  is  three  thousand  two  hundred  feet  above  the 


208 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[x. 


ocean.  At  dawn  we  came  to  springs  of  water.  Near 
these  a  battle  was  once  fought  between  Persians  and 
Turkmans.  There  is  a  small  village  midway  the  stage. 
The  asafoetida  plant  and  a  few  thorny  tufts  and  a  few 
flowers  were  the  only  plants  growing  by  the  way. 
The  road  follows  the  winding  course  of  a  deep  ravine 
for  a  distance  of  two  farasangs,  and  to  within  four  miles 
of  Abasabad.  The  chasm  has  been,  in  time  past,  a 
famous  place  for  attacks  of  the  Turkmans  on  caravans. 
From  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  pass  there  is 
an  extended  view  of  the  desert  to  the  south  and  east. 
The  next  station  may  be  seen  at  the  foot  of  the 
descent,  and  close  to  a  line  of  low  hills  which  are 
connected  by  higher  ridges  with  the  main  range  of 
the  Elburz. 

The  name  Abasabad  means  the  abode  of  Abas.  It 
is  here  given  to  a  village  in  which  captive  Georgians 
were  placed  by  Shah  Abas  the  Great.  The  remnants 
of  the  colony  now  living  in  the  walled  enclosure  are 
seventy  families,  or  two  hundred  to  three  hundred 
souls.  The  account  they  give  of  themselves  is  that 
the  Shah  Abas  brought  from  Tiflis  sixty  Georgian 
men  and  women,  and  put  them  in  this  citadel,  having 
performed  the  farce  of  designating  them  kolams  or 
guards.  They  were  to  be  guards  on  the  Turkman 
frontier.  These  people  have  the  firman  of  the  Shah 
in  which  he  ordered  an  annual  stipend  to  be  given  them 
of  one  hundred  and  thirty  tomans,  and  one  hundred 
and  thirty  kharwar  of  wheat.  It  is  claimed  that  the 


X.] 


ABASABAD. 


209 


payments  are  not  now  made  according  to  the  firman. 
A  connaught  for  irrigating  lands  was  constructed,  and 
the  king  ordered  that  a  portion  of  the  water  and  of 
the  wheat  should  belong  to  the  head  of  every  house¬ 
hold. 

The  colony  were  forbidden  the  use  of  the  Geor¬ 
gian  tongue.  By  this  restriction  they  were  virtually 
prohibited  the  use  of  the  ritual  and  service  of  the 
Georgian  Church.  In  the  third  generation,  through 
the  influence  of  persecution,  and  owing  to  the  demoral¬ 
izing  effect  of  association  with  Mohammedans,  the 
captives  became  Mohammedans  in  profession.  The 
colony  has  suffered  much  from  the  raids  of  the  Turk¬ 
mans.  Their  village  has  often  been  besieged  by  these 
nomads.  The  situation  has  brought  them  all  the 
dangers  of  the  border,  and  many  of  the  people  have 
been  carried  into  captivity,  and  some  have  perished 
from  famine.  About  fifteen  families  removed  to  Sad- 
rabad,  three  farasangs  distant,  where  they  all  died  of 
hunger. 

The  only  supply  of  water  for  the  village  is  the  con- 
naught  constructed  by  the  order  of  the  Shah.  The 
terms  of  the  firman  have  given  rise  to  the  custom  as  a 
part  of  the  marriage  rite,  of  giving  the  bridegroom 
a  cup  of  water  from  the  connaught  The  Georgian 
tongue  has  been  in  great  part  lost  to  the  colony.  In 
place  of  it  they  have  a  jargon  composed  of  Georgian 
and  Persian  words,  and  they  speak  the  Persian  fluently. 
The  condition  of  these  captives  appears  deplorable 
14 


210 


THE .  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS, 


[x. 


when  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  Christian  civ¬ 
ilization.  It  is  much  more  so,  if  that  were  possible, 
in  their  own  estimation.  Many  of  this  people  having 
lost  all  hope  of  redemption,  have  fully  identified  them¬ 
selves  with  Mohammedans.  Their  masters  and  allies 
have  not  permitted  them,  however,  to  be  successful  in 
this  purpose,  but  perpetuate  the  stigma  of  their  origin 
with  the  last  trace  of  Georgian  blood. 

The  distance  from  Abasabad  to  Mazenan  is  five  fara- 
sangs.  The  road  passes  over  flat  plains  and  stretches 
of  the  kabeer.  On  the  left  the  mountains  called 
Gaghatai  form  a  rugged  barrier  very  close  to  the  high¬ 
way.  On  the  south  there  is  no  limit  to  the  expanse  of 
desert,  save  the  horizon.  Six  miles  eastward  of  Abas¬ 
abad  there  is  a  spring  of  water  which  is  famous  with 
the  people  of  this  region  on  account  of  its  having 
been  a  favourite  resort  of  Turkmans.  The  bridge  over 
the  river  called  Abrashum  is  two  or  three  miles  be¬ 
yond  the  spring.  I  take  this  river  to  be  the  Kara  Su, 
called  also  the  Kal  Mura.  The  stream  is  here  motion¬ 
less,  and  its  waters  a  dull  red  colour.  It  is  this  small 
creek  which  forms  the  extensive  Kabeer  on  the  south. 
We  reached  Sadrabad  at  the  hour  of  morning  prayer. 
The  caravan  halted.  While  the  people  were  dispersed 
a  train  of  camels  passed  by,  and  a  youthful  camel 
driver  sung  what  appeared  to  be  an  extemporaneous 
song ;  the  sentiment  translated  into  English  is  :  “  If 
you  would  sleep  sweetly,  go  among  the  Turkmans  : 
there  is  your  rest.” 


X.] 


VILLAGE  OF  MAZE  NAN. 


21 1 


Three  miles  east  of  Sadrabad  the  road  gradually 
ascends  higher  ground,  and  passes  over  a  level  plain 
on  which  there  are  many  villages  and  some  cultiva¬ 
tion.  The  very  large  and  deserted  buildings  to  be 
seen  in  many  directions  on  this  plain  are  very  con¬ 
spicuous  objects,  and  have  a  singular  appearance. 
There  is  a  cluster  of  these  structures  about  three  miles 
northwest  of  Mazenan,  and  near  the  highway.  There 
was  here  a  village  of  these  buildings.  They  appear  to 
have  been  deserted  for  a  long  time,  and  are  said  to 
have  been  constructed  at  first  by  the  Guebers.  At  a 
short  distance  they  seem  to  be  large  blocks  of  several 
stories,  having  windows  and  doorways,  and  resembling 
the  business  houses  of  Europe.  There  is  every  indi¬ 
cation  that  they  were  fortified  and  built  as  citadels. 
From  the  roof  of  the  post  house  in  Mazenan  I  counted 
six  of  these  large  structures,  all  separated  from  one 
another  by  several  miles.  Mazenan  is  in  a  cultivated 
tract  of  land.  It  is  a  small  village  of  miserable  hovels. 
Near  the  village  there  are  two  caravansaries,  and  a 
post  house,  and  telegraph  office.  From  this  place 
eastward  the  road  is  less  frequented  by  Turkmans 
than  the  part  now  passed  over  by  us.  The  escort 
of  soldiers  is  therefore  considered  to  be  unneces¬ 
sary.  The  people  composing  the  caravan  could  now 
consult  their  own  convenience  as  to  'time  of  starting 
and  speed  of  travel.  The  caravan  was  therefore 
broken  up  into  small  squads  of  pilgrims  and  solitary 
stragglers.  As  there  was  no  further  reason  for  delay 


212 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


on  our  part,  we  left  the  station  with  the  shagird  and 
one  servant. 

The  next  station,  called  Mahr,  is  six  farasangs  from 
Mazenan.  The  road  ascends  a  valley  coming  from  the 
east.  After  a  ride  of  three  farasangs  we  came  to  a 
reservoir  of  water.  The  valley  is  here  dotted  with 
little  towers  similar  to  those  seen  near  Dah  Mullah 
and  in  other  places.  In  this  vicinity  a  battle  was 
fought  some  years  ago,  between  Turkmans  and  Per¬ 
sians.  Mahr  is  a  small  village,  but  apparently  well 
supplied  with  water.  The  mountains  on  the  north  of 
it  are  high  and  precipitous.  It  is  said  that  these  hills 
are  rich  in  ores,  and  that  turquois  have  been  found 
among  them.  The  ride  of  five  farasangs  from  Mahr 
to  Sabzewar  is  along  the  valley,  and  over  a  dreary  and 
uninhabited  plain. 

When  we  were  about  four  miles  distant  from  the 
city,  we  came  to  an  old  minar.  This  minaret  stands 
in  a  cultivated  field.  The  rubbish  of  old  walls  is  to 
be  seen  very  near  to  the  structure.  The  foundation  of 
gravel  and  cement,  which  at  first  must  have  been 
below  the  surface,  is  now  above  ground  to  the  height 
of  some  three  feet,  yet  the  heavy  walls  of  burned 
brick  stand  firmly  upon  it  without  fracture.  The 
gravel  cement  has  been  gradually  worn,  and  the  super¬ 
structure  projects  several  inches  over  the  base  of 
cement.  The  column  is  circular,  and  within  it  there 
is  a  flight  of  stairs  to  the  top  of  the  minaret.  The 
doorway  to  the  stairs  has  been  filled  up  with  brick,  so 


X.] 


SABZE  WAR—POPULA  TION. 


213 


as  to  prevent  the  ascent  of  the  steps  by  any  one.  This 
appeared  to  be  a  wise  precaution  when  we  looked  at 
the  apparently  frail  foundation.  This  minar  resembles 
those  seen  in  Damgan,  and  it  may  reasonably  be  re¬ 
ferred  to  the  same  period.  We  rode  from  the  minar 
to  Sabzewar  in  forty  minutes. 

The  name  of  this  city  means  abounding  in  verdure. 
It  is  a  walled  town  and  is  conjectured  to  contain  a 
population  of  ten  or  fifteen  thousand  souls.  Judging 
from  the  extent  of  the  buildings,  I  should  say  that 
there  cannot  be  more  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants. 
The  ruins  called  the  Ark  cover  a  large  tract  of  land. 
The  town  has  a  busy  aspect,  and  is  one  of  the  best 
cities  of  northern  Khorasan.  Cotton  and  silk  are 
produced  in  the  country  adjacent.  The  chief  manu¬ 
factures  of  the  place  are  a  coarse  cotton  cloth  called 
kadak,  and  vessels  of  copper.  The  people  are  Mo¬ 
hammedans,  except  a  few  Armenians  attracted  hither 
by  the  opportunity  to  purchase  silk  and  cotton  in  ex¬ 
change  for  other  commodities.  One  of  the  Armenians 
warned  me  against  going  to  Mashhad  and  described 
it  as  a  dangerous  place  for  a  Christian  to  go  to.  I  suf¬ 
fered  no  harm  in  Mashhad,  but  this  poor  fellow  was 
knocked  off  his  mule,  and  his  throat  cut,  as  he  was 
going  by  night,  and  by  caravan,  to  Mahr.  It  is  sup¬ 
posed  that  he  fell  asleep  while  riding,  that  the  mule 
lagged  behind  the  train,  and  that  the  man  was  then 
killed  for  the  money  which  he  carried  on  his  person. 
The  followers  of  the  Bab  are  said  to  be  very  many  in 


214 


I 


THE  LA  HE  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[X. 


this  city  and  its  vicinity.  Two  missionaries  of  this 
sect  called  upon  us  at  the  post  house.  One  of  them 
claimed  to  have  made  a  hundred  converts  during  the 
brief  period  of  his  secret  revival  efforts  in  the  town. 
He  told  us  that  he  had  married  the  daughter  of  a 
Georgian  captive.  It  is  reported  that  there  are  in  the 
villages  quite  a  number  of  Georgian  people.  Leav¬ 
ing  Sabzewar  at  dawn  we  rode  a  distance  of  six  fara- 
sangs  to  Zafaran  in  two  hours  and  fifteen  minutes. 
The  word  Saffron  will  be  recognized  in  the  name  of 
this  station.  In  the  ride  to  Shore  Aub,  we  crossed  a 
spur  of  the  mountain.  We  noticed  many  spring  flowers 
by  the  wayside.  The  poppy  was  so  abundant  that  in 
many  places  the  desert  seemed  to  be  covered  with  a 
crimson  carpet.  I  picked  up  a  large  chalcedony,  and 
we  met  little  boys  who  were  carrying  nightingales  to 
market. 

The  station  Shore  Aub  has  two  caravansaries  and  a 
cistern  of  water.  One  caravansary  was  built  by  the 
Mustofe  of  Mashhad,  for  the  benefit  of  pilgrims.  As 
no  horses  could  be  obtained  here  we  were  obliged  to 
ride  three  farasangs  farther,  and  a  little  off  the  main 
road  to  the  place  called  Cheman,  where  the  horses 
were  now  turned  loose  to  graze.  While  we  were  wait¬ 
ing  in  the  station  a  number  of  people  were  gathered 
about  one  of  the  pilgrims,  a  woman,  who  was  lying  on 
the  ground  and  appeared  to  be  dying.  The  people  did 
not  seem  to  mind  the  situation  very  mych ;  but  the 
husband  remarked  to  me  that  should  his  wife  die  there 


X.] 


NISHAPOOR. 


215 


was  this  consolation  that  as  Mashhad  is  now  near,  she 
will  be  buried  near  the  saint  and  in  holy  ground.  The 
poor  woman  herself  had  made  the  toilsome  journey 
with  this  thought  in  mind. 

The  main  road  to  Nishapoor  crosses  the  plain.  A 
ride  of  several  miles  over  ground,  on  which  there  was 
no  path,  or  other  evidence  of  travel,  brought  us  to  an 
old  pike,  which  is  said  to  have  been  part  of  the  old 
road  to  the  province  of  Mazandaran.  The  stones  were 
yet  abundant  in  a  kabeer  which  is  near  the  grazing 
ground.  On  reaching  the  Cheman  the  shagird  went 
out  to  catch  as  many  horses  as  were  needed.  The 
meadow  covered  an  extensive  tract  of  country  and 
contained  fresh  water  springs.  The  water  of  one  of 
these  was  remarkably  clear  and  cold.  On  riding  a 
mile  eastward  of  this  place  we  came  to  a  river  flowing 
southward.  The  channel  appeared  to  be  near  one 
hundred  feet  wide,  and  the  water  came  up  to  the  saddle 
girths.  The  only  name  which  the  post  boy  knew  for 
this  stream  was  rud  khanah,  or  the  river.  A  ride  of 
about  one  hour  brought  us  to  a  well-tilled  part  of  the 
plain  and  to  the  environs  of  Nishapoor. 

The  plain  of  this  name  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  in 
Persia,  and  might  now  seem  to  justify  the  extravagant 
praise  of  the  saying  that — “  It  is  watered  by  ten  thou¬ 
sand  streams  flowing  from  ten  thousand  springs.”  The 
name,  according  to  Persian  lexicographers,  means  the 
city  of  Shapoor,  and  it  is  often  so  written.  The  sub¬ 
urbs  are  broken  walls  and  half-tilled  fields  and  dreary 


216 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[x. 


cemeteries.  Passing  these  we  entered  the  chapar 
khanah  which  is  just  without  the  gate  on  the  south 
side  of  the  city.  Within  the  walls  there  are  about  ten 
thousand  people.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  filthy, 
and  the  walls  are  going  to  ruin.  The  ancient  city 
which  gave  the  present  name  to  the  plain  and  town  is 
believed  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the 
world.  Persian  writers  make  the  founding  of  the  city 
to  be  cotemporaneous  with  the  Peeshdadian  dynasty 
and  the  fabulous  kings.  The  place  has  figured  as  the 
seat  of  royalty  from  the  days  of  the  Deevband  until  the 
reign  of  Ashmed,  Shah  Abd  Allah  the  Afghan.  The 
large  mounds  a  short  distance  east  of  the  present  town 
favour  the  tradition  that  the  first  city  was  located  here. 

Nishapoor  has  been  noted  for  its  schools  of  phil¬ 
osophy,  and  of  the  sect  of  the  Ismaelites.  We  have 
related  that  Hassan  Saba,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of 
the  Assassins,  was  a  student  here.  This  place  is  a 
point  of  departure  for  the  mines  of  turquois,  which 
are  from  nine  to  eleven  farasangs  distant.  These,  I 
believe,  are  the  only  turquoise  mines  in  the  world.  I 
am  told  that  these  precious  stones  are  found  in  other 
localities  in  these  mountains ;  if  so,  it  is  true,  however, 
that  no  other  mines  have  been  opened.  These  are 
very  old  mines,  and  were  worked  with  much  more  skill 
in  former  ages  than  they  now  are.  The  mines  are 
farmed  out  by  the  Shah,  and  the  parties  working  them 
are  not  interested  to  make  any  substantial  improve¬ 
ments  in  the  way  of  shafts  and  supports,  and  other 


X.] 


PERSIAN  SERPENT  CHARMER. 


217 


works.  The  presence  of  solid  masonry  in  some  parts 
gives  evidence  of  the  greater  care  exercised  in  the 
times  when  the  working  was  carried  on  by  Greeks  or 
Romans.  The  miners  are  carefully  examined  as  they 
leave  the  mine  every  day,  so  that  none  of  the  stones 
may  be  stolen.  The  best  stones  are  very  valuable. 
Their  value  depends  upon  perfection  of  colour  and 
freedom  from  flaw  and  fracture.  An  experienced  eye 
will  detect  the  fine  blue  colour  which  belongs  to  the 
best  gems. 

On  the  east  of  the  town,  and  without  the  gate,  there 
is  a  large  caravansary.  Many  pilgrims  were  resting 
here  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  A  Persian  who  fol¬ 
lowed  the  caravan  exhibited  a  trained  scorpion  and 
serpents.  He  kept  a  black  scorpion  in  a  little  box, 
which  he  placed  upon  a  cloth,  and  a  small  boy  blew  a 
pipe  for  the  purpose  of  calling  the  reptile  from  the  box. 
I  perceived  that  the  scorpion  had  been  made  harmless 
by  having  had  the  sting  extracted.  It  is  the  testimony 
of  natives  of  the  country  that  the  serpents  exhibited 
by  the  serpent  charmers  are  made  harmless  by  the 
extraction  of  the  fangs.  The  serpents  possessed  by 
this  man  were  supposed  to  have  been  subjected  to  this 
treatment 


CHAPTER  XI. 


Leave  Nishapoor — Kadam  Gah — Torook — Transportation  of  dead  bodies 
— The  country  about  Mashhad — Revenues  of  the  Shrine — Salutations 
of  the  Pilgrims — Aspect  of  the  City — Burial  Place  of  Haroun  al 
Rasheed — The  Harem — Its  Construction  and  Decoration — Expendi¬ 
ture  of  Funds — Miracles — Jins  or  Demons — Power  of  the  Mullahs — 
Sacred  Character  of  the  Asylum — Number  of  Pilgrims — Massacre  of 
Jews  and  their  Conversion  to  Islam — The  Synagogue  Tablet — Char¬ 
acter  and  Occupation  of  the  Jews — The  Country  to  Sarakhs — The 
Turkmans  in  Mashhad — Natural  Resources  of  this  Section  of  the 
Country — Importance  of  Mashhad — Climate  and  Health — Country 
of  the  Turkmans — Relative  Strength  of  the  Tribes — The  Takahs  as 
Compared  with  other  Tribes — Country  inhabited  by  Takahs — Present 
Town  of  Merv — Gaghatai — Superstition  and  Jewish  Exorcists — Gov¬ 
ernment  and  Morals — Turkman  Horses — Kizil  Bashees — Delegation 
of  Turkmans  in  Tehran — Ravages  of  the  Russian  Border  and  the 
Caspian  Coast  by  Turkmans — The  Situation  in  1880 — Advance  of 
Russians  and  the  Situation  in  1885 — The  Present  and  Prospective 
Railway  to  Panj  Dah — To  the  Indus — Effect  on  Persia. 

Leaving  Nishapoor  near  sunset,  we  rode  six  farasangs 
to  Kadam  Gah.  This  stage  is  over  the  eastern  part 
of  the  plain  of  Nishapoor.  There  are  here  also,  as  on 
the  west  of  that  city,  indications  of  fertility  and  of 
former  prosperity.  The  name  Kadam  Gah  means 
threshold,  or  the  place  of  the  foot.  Tradition  has  it 
that  Imam  Reza  lodged  here,  when  on  his  way  to  Tus. 

There  is  now  a  garden  and  a  mosque  to  mark  the 

218 


XI.] 


KADAM  GAH 


219 


place  where  the  saint  reposed.  A  village  and  a  citadel 
occupy  an  adjacent  hill.  *  A  rill  of  limpid  water  ripples 
down  the  mountain  side,  and  passes  near  the  post 
house.  Its  entire  course  is  set  with  sturdy  trees,  which 
show,  by  their  heavy  tops,  the  course  of  the  stream 
after  its  waters  have  become  invisible  in  the  desert 
below.  The  shade  of  these  trees  was  appropriated  by 
the  pilgrims,  and  their  carpets  were  spread  under  the 
boughs.  Here  they  smoked,  and  ate,  and  slept. 

We  had  ridden  a  good  part  of  the  night ;  yet  we 
rested  here  but  a  short  time,  and  hastened  on,  that  we 
might  enter  the  gates  of  the  “  Holy  City’'  before  night, 
and  having  before  us  a  ride  of  thirteen  farasangs,  or 
about  fifty  miles.  No  horses  were  to  be  had  in  the 
station  of  Shareefabad,  as  they  had  been  sent  to  Torook, 
one  farasang  beyond  the  post-house,  where  there  are 
pastures.  It  was  necessary  therefore  to  go  on  to  that 
place.  On  the  way  we  passed  a  human  corpse  which 
was  being  borne  to  Mashhad  for  interment.  This 
one  was  placed  in  a  rough-made  bier.  This  circum¬ 
stance  indicated  that  it  had  not  been  brought  a  great 
way.  The  transportation  of  dead  bodies  to  the  shrines 
is  quite  a  business.  The  corpses  are  in  most  cases 
carefully  wrapped  in  cotton  cloth  ;  over  this  is  folded  a 
namad,  and  the  whole  body  is  then  firmly  bound  with 
ropes.  The  burden  is  then  committed  to  a  muleteer, 
who,  for  a  consideration,  agrees  to  bear  it  to  the  shrine 
designated.  He  may,  however,  cast  the  body  into 
some  pit,  or  solitary  place,  where  the  wolves  and 


220 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


jackals  soon  dispose  of  it.  It  is  frequently  the  case 
that  interments  are  made  with  a  view  to  taking  up, 
and  removing  the  remains  to  the  shrine  at  some  sub¬ 
sequent  date. 

The  caravansary  of  Torook  is  old  and  unoccupied. 
The  distance  hence  to  Mashhad  is  five  farasangs,  and 
the  highway  passes  over  a  rough  mountain  region  for 
some  three  farasangs  of  the  first  part  of  the  way.  The 
more  rugged  parts  of  the  road  have  been  greatly  im¬ 
proved  by  the  gratuity  and  zeal  of  the  Sadr  Azam. 
In  the  worst  place  a  slab  of  stone  has  been  set  up  as  a 
memorial  of  this  officer  of  the  government,  and  of 
his  generous  act  in  improving  the  road  for  the  benefit 
of  the  pilgrims.  This  was  plainly  an  act  in  which 
religious  zeal  and  personal  ambition  were  both  grati¬ 
fied.  The  pilgrims,  however,  appeared  to  perceive  the 
merit  of  the  deed  only,  and  prayed  for  blessings  to 
descend  on  the  Shah  and  his  minister  of  state.  Men 
and  women  toiled  along  the  stony  and  steep  ascent, 
sustained  by  the  speedy  realization  of  their  hopes  in 
seeing  the  domes  and  minarets  of  the  sacred  city. 
One  woman,  who  with  others  trudged  along  on  foot, 
exclaimed  to  her  companions, — “  I  am  willing  to  go 
on  foot  and  to  live  on  water  if  I  may  but  see  Reza.” 
From  the  summit  of  the  pass  and  on  the  descent  of 
the  northern  slope,  there  is  an  extended  view  of  the 
valley  of  the  Kashaf  Rud,  and  beyond  it  and  east¬ 
ward,  as  that  stream  flows  toward  the  Tejend,  of  which 
it  is  a  tributary. 


XL] 


APPROACH  TO  MASHHAD. 


221 


The  city  of  Mashhad  lay  far  below  us.  The  gold- 
tiled  dome  and  minars  of  the  mosque  of  Imam  Reza 
were  the  only  prominent  objects  to  be  seen  in  the 
large  cluster  of  dull-brown  walls  and  roofs  of  the  city 
of  Mashhad.  The  valley  appeared  to  be  some  fifteen 
or  twenty  miles  wide,  and  its  general  course  from  north¬ 
west  to  southeast.  In  every  quarter  there  appeared  a 
succession  of  mountain  ranges.  On  the  right  hand 
were  mountains  on  the  way  to  Herat.  On  the  north 
and  east  were  to  be  seen  landmarks  on  the  road  to 
Sarakhs.  As  we  approached  the  city  every  object 
seemed  to  be  consecrated  to  the  great  Sheah  saint 
buried  there.  The  caravansaries,  the  villages,  the 
fields  and  the  fountains  belong  to  him.  The  revenue 
derived  from  these  possessions  is  consecrated  to  the 
support  of  the  mullahs,  the  schools,  the  police,  the 
pilgrims,  and  to  the  repairs  of  the  sacred  buildings. 
The  salutations  of  the  returning  pilgrims  whom  we 
met  were  :  “  An  interest  in  your  prayers.”  “  May  your 
prayers  be  heard.”  In  reply  to  which  our  men  said : 
“  May  your  place  not  be  vacant.”  As  we  came  near 
the  gate  a  strong  wind  drove  clouds  of  dust  upon  us, 
which  for  a  time  obscured  every  object.  The  walls 
and  gateways  and  dwellings  of  the  city  were  soon  dis¬ 
cerned  to  be  painfully  earthy  rather  than  celestial,  and 
the  ground  about  the  city  seemed  to  be  full  of  dead 
men’s  bones,  if  the  graves  and  gravestones  could  be 
taken  as  evidence.  Entering  the  dilapidated  gateway 
opening  on  the  Shareefabad  road,  we  passed  through 


222 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


narrow  and  dirty  streets  to  near  the  centre  of  the 
city. 

In  the  reign  of  the  Khalafahs  of  Bagdad,  and  in  the 
time  of  the  Sultans,  the  Begs  and  Shahs,  the  principal 
city  and  capital  of  this  region  was  Tus.  It  was  sit¬ 
uated  about  sixteen  miles  north  of  the  present  capital 
of  Khorasan.  The  site  is  well  known,  but  contains 
the  fragment  of  an  old  tower  as  the  only  remains  of 
the  once  famous  capital.  In  the  time  of  Haroun  al 
Rasheed  there  was  at  this  place  which  we  have  but 
just  now  entered,  a  small  village  called  Sanabad. 
The  only  structure  for  which  it  was  noted  was  an  old 
kalah  or  tower,  which  tradition  refers  to  the  time  of 
the  fire  worshippers.  The  Khalafah  Rasheed,  when 
inspecting  his  affairs  in  Khorasan,  died  in  Tus,  and  his 
body  was  interred  in  the  tower  at  Sanabad.  Mah- 
moon,  the  son  and  successor  of  Rasheed,  sent  Reza, 
the  eighth  Imam  of  the  house  of  Ale,  to  the  government 
of  Tus.  He  is  said  to  have  been  impelled  to  this  act 
as  a  stroke  of  policy  to  reconcile  the  Aleites  to  him¬ 
self.  Subsequently  the  suspicions  of  Mahmooti  were 
excited  against  the  Imam,  and  the  Khalafah  caused 
him  to  be  poisoned.  Some  writers  relate  that  the 
poison  was  administered  in  the  capital.  Others  say 
that  Reza  was  ordered  to  depart  to  Madenah,  and  had 
proceeded  no  further  on  his  return  than  to  Sanabad, 
when  the  messenger  of  the  Khalafah  overtook  him 
and  made  known  the  will  of  his  royal  master.  The 
Imam  is  represented  as  having  calmly  submitted  to 


XI.] 


MASHHAD— MEANING  OF 


223 


the  decree.  His  body  was  buried  in  the  tower  of  San- 
abad,  and  near  the  grave  of  Rasheed,  so  that  “  The 
feet  of  the  saint  were  toward  the  head  of  the  Khala- 
fah.”  With  the  growth  of  the  sect  of  the  twelve 
Imams  the  grave  became  the  object  of  veneration,  and, 
in  course  of  time,  pretentious  buildings  were  erected 
above  it.  It  is  claimed  that  the  original  tower  yet  re¬ 
mains,  but  as  to  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  struc¬ 
tures  of  early  date,  Persian  writers  do  not  agree. 

The  name  Mashhad  means  the  place  of  martyrdom. 
It  is  given  to  quite  all  places  where  Mohammedans 
were  martyred.  It  is  usually  applied  especially  to 
such  places  when  the  slain  are  interred  where  they 
fell.  The  term  was  used  of  Sanabad,  and  in  time  the 
use  of  it  superseded  that  of  the  old  name.  This  place 
is  often  called  Khorasan,  a  name  which  has  been  in 
use  since  this  city  became  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  that  name.  The  city  of  Mashhad  is  in  the  form  of 
a  square.  A  broad  avenue  runs  in  an  east  and  west 
direction  through  the  heart  of  the  city,  and  from  wall 
to  wall.  A  canal  flows  through  the  middle  of  this 
avenue.  Near  the  centre  of  the  city  and  of  this  street 
are  the  many  buildings  called  Imam  Reza. 

I  walked  from  the  western  side  of  the  city,  and 
along  this  street  going  east,  until  further  progress  was 
prevented  by  a  barrier.  An  arch  of  brick  spanned 
the  centre  of  the  avenue.  Under  it  was  a  pole  and  a 
picket  gate,  where  guards  were  stationed.  There  is 
east  of  this  the  wall  of  the  Sahn.  The  space  between  the 


224 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


outer  arch  and  the  wall  of  the  Sahn  is  called  the  Bast. 
The  term  is  used  to  denote  the  point  within  which 
sanctuary  is  given.  All  sorts  of  offenders,  except 
apostates  from  Islam,  are  secure  from  arrest  and  from 
the  avenger  of  blood,  when  once  they  have  passed  the 
outer  barrier.  In  the  centre  of  the  wall  there  is  a 
high-arched  gateway,  through  which  entrance  is  had 
to  the  great  sahn  or  court  of  the  mosque.  A  minaret 
stands  on  either  side  of  the  Sahn.  On  the  north  side 
of  this  court  there  is  an  arched  way  called  an  awan. 
It  is  a  corridor  leading  to  the  tower  in  which  the  true 
shrine  is  placed.  This  tower  is  a  circular  structure, 
and  is  called  the  Harem,  meaning  here  the  inner  place. 
These  doorways  are  covered  with  gold-enameled  tiles. 
The  tiles  in  the  awan  of  Nadir  Shah  have  plating  to 
the  value  of  about  seven  tomans  each.  On  the  eastern 
side  of  this  old  sahn  there  is  a  like  arrangement  of  a 
bast  and  gateway.  On  the  northeast  there  is  a  new 
sahn.  It  was  constructed  at  the  expense  of  Azid  al 
Mulk.  The  tiles  in  the  awan  of  this  court  are  said 
to  contain  in  the  enamel  of  each  tile  gold,  to  the  value 
of  about  three  tomans.  The  outer  surface  of  the 
dome  of  the  Harem  is  covered  with  gold-enameled 
tiles,  as  is  also  the  exterior  of  the  two  minarets.  The 
tiling  is  carried  down  the  sides  of  these  to  the  roof  of 
the  mosque. 

As  I  was  not  willing  to  put  on  the  disguise  neces¬ 
sary  to  make  entrance  to  the  interior  possible,  I  em¬ 
ployed  a  Persian  artist  to  go  and  sketch  the  Harem. 


XI.] 


THE  HAREM. 


225 


In  the  course  of  a  few  days  he  gave  me  a  pencil 
sketch.  This  assured  me  that  he  could  make  a  fair 
picture,  and  I  therefore  engaged  him  to  paint  a  second 
picture  to  be  forwarded  to  me  at  Tehran.  However, 
it  did  not  come  to  hand  until  after  several  months.  I 

i 

learned  that  the  picture  had  been  completed,  and  re¬ 
ported  to  the  superintendent  of  the  shrine,  an  officer 
of  the  government.  He  sent  for  it,  and  being  greatly 
pleased  with  it,  gave  the  artist  a  liberal  present  and  a 
pension,  and  sent  the  painting  to  the  king.  After  this 
the  artist  received  several  orders  for  copies  of  the  pic¬ 
ture,  and  in  his  prosperity  seemed  to  forget  the  first 
contract.  However,  in  time,  the  artist  was  prevailed 
upon  to  fulfill  his  agreement,  after  the  first  orders  had 
been  filled.  The  picture  is  a  good  one  and  much 
labour  has  been  put  upon  it.  The  dimensions  and  par¬ 
ticulars  given  below  concerning  the  Harem  were  given 
to  me  by  the  artist,  and  were  verified  by  the  statements 
of  other  Mohammedans. 

The  room  called  the  Harem  is  ten  Persian  zarhs, 
or  thirty-four  feet  square.  From  the  floor  to  the  apex 
of  the  dome  is  twenty-two  and  a  half  zarhs  or  near 
seventy-seven  feet.  The  floor  is  of  marble  tiles  and 
covered  with  a  Persian  carpet.  A  wainscoting  of 
kashee  protects  the  lower  walls.  The  lowest  part  of 
this  is  of  tiles  made  in  the  reign  of  Shah  Abas,  and  is 
called  izarah.  The  belts  of  tiles  bearing  inscriptions, 
or  raised  letters,  are  called  katebah.  From  the  top¬ 
most  katebah  to  the  top  of  the  dome,  the  vault  of  the 

15 


226 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


dome  and  the  walls  are  covered  with  looking  glass,  cut 
in  small  bits,  and  set  in  plaster.  The  coverings  of  the 
tomb  are  each  called  a  zerah.  Of  these  there  are  three. 
One  of  silver,  one  of  iron,  and  the  third  of  steel. 
These  have  been  changed  in  the  course  of  years  ;  for 
early  writers  mention  an  inner  zerah  of  gold.  The 
door  of  the  zerah  is  fastened  with  a  padlock  of  gold. 
The  base  of  the  zerah  is  solid  silver.  The  room  has 
three  doors.  One  is  covered  with  a  cashmere  shawl, 
the  fringes  of  which  are  made  of  pearls.  Another 
door  is  covered  with  gold  plate  set  with  precious  stones. 
The  whole  is  said  to  have  been  the  gift  of  the  late 
treasurer  of  the  Shah.  There  is  reported  to  be  also  a 
marble  sarcophagus  under  the  zerah. 

The  mustofe  said  that  the  revenue  of  the  shrine  is 
forty  thousand  tomans,  equivalent  to  near  sixteen  thou¬ 
sand  pounds  sterling.  This  does  not  appear  to  be  a 
very  large  sum ;  but,  as  it  is  used  by  Persians,  repre¬ 
sents  a  greater  value  than  the  amount  does  in  pounds. 
The  guards  of  the  establishment  are  three  hundred. 
Several  schools  and  a  hospital  derive  support  from  the 
revenue  of  the  shrine.  More  than  six  hundred  pounds 
of  rice  are  cooked  daily  for  the  people  employed  in 
the  shrine,  and  for  the  pilgrims  who  may  need  it. 
There  is  a  continued  effort  on  the  part  of  the  persons 
controlling  the  shrine  to  make  the  place  famous  for 
miracles.  It  is  related  that  a  man  came  to  the  tomb 
desiring  money,  for  he  was  very  poor  and  greatly 
troubled.  After  several  days  of  prayer  he  was  re- 


XL] 


THE  SHRINE— MIRACLES. 


227 


warded  by  seeing  a  hand  put  through  the  open  work 
of  the  zerah,  which  presented  to  him  a  purse.  The 
man  ran  to  the  sahn  and  proclaimed  the  miracle.  The 
people  immediately  tore  all  his  clothing  off  him,  and 
into  bits,  in  their  anxiety  to  obtain  a  memento  of  the 
miracle,  and  a  talisman. 

The  steel  of  which  the  outer  zerah  is  made  was  ex¬ 
humed  in  nuggets  within  the  sahn,  at  a  place  indicated 
by  the  oracle.  Objects  appeared  on  the  outside  of  the 
highest  dome  of  the  mosque,  which  I  learned  were 
bundles  of  grass  and  flowers  put  in  this  place  where 
they  could  be  reached  with  difficulty  by  a  hand  thrust 
through  a  small  window  in  the  dome.  The  bits  of 
grass  are  valued  by  the  people  as  talismans  and  reme¬ 
dies  for  disease. 

It  is  related  of  one  of  the  Shahs  that  on  visiting  the 
shrine  he  saw  there  a  blind  man.  The  king  inquired 
how  long  a  time  he  had  been  here  seeking  the  recovery 
of  his  sight.  The  man  replied,  “  Ten  years.”  Then, 
said  the  king,  “  You  must  be  a  very  bad  man ;  I  there¬ 
fore  give  you  until  morning  an  opportunity  for  prayer. 
If  by  that  time  the  saint  has  not  granted  your  request, 
I  will  take  your  head  off.”  It  is  said  that  Reza  was 
moved  with  pity  for  the  blind  man,  and  restored  his 
sight  that  very  night,  and  in  the  morning  the  Shah 
gave  to  him  a  valuable  present.  When  a  miracle 
occurs,  the  trumpets  are  blown  and  the  drums  are 
beat. 

The  mustofe  called  upon  me,  and  among  the  first 


228 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


questions  put  by  him  was  this :  “  Do  you .  believe  in 
jins?  Have  you  any  in  your  country?’’  This  word 
jin  is  used  in  Persia  to  denote  a  certain  class  of  demons. 
In  reply  I  did  not  stop  to  explain  the  terms,  but  took 
his  question  in  the  evident  intent  of  it,  and  replied  that 
I  did  not  believe  in  them.  He  then  said,  with  great 
sincerity,  “  We  have  jins  here.”  He  then  gave  a  par¬ 
ticular  description  of  them  in  answer  to  my  question 
what  they  might  be.  “They  are,”  he  said,  “little  fel¬ 
lows,  about  so  high,” — putting  his  hand  about  three 
feet  above  the  floor, — “  and  they  have  tails.”  I  asked : 
“  Have  you  seen  these  creatures  ?  ”  He  replied  :  “  No  ; 
I  have  not  seen  their  bodies,  but  I  have  heard  their 
voices.  The  mullahs  of  Reza  have  power,”  he  con¬ 
tinued,  “to  bring  them  up,  and  the  jins  are  under  the 
control  of  the  mullahs.  They  sometimes  enter  rooms 
in  a  mysterious  way,  and  strangle  people.  Look  out 
for  jins.”  I  told  him  that  the  priests  seemed  to  be 
familiar  with  spirits,  and  that  there  are  people  in 
America  who  professed  to  be  able  to  bring  up  the  dead 
and  to  talk  with  them.  He  immediately  replied: 
«  The  mullahs  of  Reza  do  that.”  He  also  said :  “  I 
would  like  to  get  a  talisman  that  would  repel  the  jins.” 

Demoniacal  arts  and  sham  miracles  have  been  prac¬ 
tised  here  to  such  extent  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 


city  have  come  to  realize  the  desperate  character  of  the 
persons  connected  with  the  shrine.  Quite  every  per¬ 
son  with  whom  I  conversed  on  the  subject,  voluntarily 
and  in  strong  terms  condemned  the  frauds  practised, 


XL] 


THE  SHRINE  A  REFUGE. 


229 


and  seemed  to  believe  the  mullahs  capable  of  doing 
any  amount  of  evil.  The  secular  power  is  wholly 
subservient  to  the  religious.  A  few  weeks  before  our 
arrival  the  mullahs  had  caused  a  Bab  to  be  killed.  At 
another  time  they  incited  a  mob  to  destroy  the  house 
of  a  prince  who  had  the  temerity  to  say  that  he  would 
drink  wine  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of  the  mullahs. 

The  asylum  afforded  by  this  shrine  is  intended  to  be 
commensurate  with  the  greatness  of  the  Imam.  It  is 
said  that  the  Shah  himself  would  not  dare  to  take  from 
the  sanctuary  a  criminal  who  may  have  taken  refuge 
there.  It  is  a  striking  feature  of  the  Persian  custom 
of  asylum  that  even  Christians,  Jews,  and  Guebers  are 
allowed  asylums  where,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
no  non-Mussulman  is  permitted  to  enter.  The  prac¬ 
tice  is  intended  to  denote  the  sacredness  of  the  shrines 
and  is  not  an  expedient  for  showing  mercy  to  the  in¬ 
fidels.  The  pilgrims  to  Reza  in  the  course  of  the  year 
are  very  many.  But  there  is  no  means  by  which  the 
exact  number  can  be  known.  The  greater  part  of 
these  are  fanatics.  Many  are  pleasure  seekers  and 
religious  tramps.  The  dervishes  are  numerous,  and 
many  of  them  seek  to  excite  religious  fervour  and 
fanaticism. 

The  shrine  of  Imam  Reza  is  the  most  sacred  and 
celebrated  in  Persia.  The  regions  to  be  travelled  over 
to  reach  it  are  among  the  most  dangerous  for  the 
stranger  and  the  traveller.  Yet  the  highways  are  filled 
with  pilgrims,  many  of  whom  are  women  who  have 


230 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


toiled  over  desert  and  long  ways,  in  many  weary  nights, 
in  the  hope  of  seeing  the  famed  splendour  of  the  mau¬ 
soleum,  and  of  kissing  the  silver  bars  which  guard 
the  sacred  tomb.  We  cannot  understand,  therefore, 
the  feelings  with  which  these  weary  ones  look  down 
from  the  last  mountain  upon  the  golden  dome  and 
minarets  which  signal  the  end  of  their  toil,  and  the 
storehouse  of  talismans,  miraculous  cures,  and  religious 
merit  sufficient  to  wipe  out  years  of  sin  both  past  and 
future.  The  dead  are  brought  from  every  quarter  and 
buried  within  or  without  the  city,  as  may  happen  to  be 
their  fortune.  The  courts  of  the  mausoleum  and  the 
burial  ground  within  the  city  contain  the  remains  of 
some  of  the  most  famous  kings  and  princes  of  the 
kingdom.  The  city  is  entirely  compassed  by  grave¬ 
yards.  The  northern  side  seems  to  have  the  least 
number  of  graves.  The  most  of  the  graves  are  con¬ 
spicuous  for  the  slabs  or  blocks  of  soapstone  set  above 
them. 

The  city  of  Mashhad  contains  about  sixty  thousand 
souls  permanent  residents.  All  of  these  are  Moham¬ 
medans,  except  about  three  hundred  families  of  Jews. 
To  this  number  must  be  added  a  transient  population 
of  pilgrims.  The  Jews  are  called  Jadeed,  or  new  ones, 
in  reference  to  their  recent  conversion  to  Islam.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  tradition  of  the  colony,  they  are  the 
posterity  of  a  company  of  Jews  who  were  removed 
from  Casveen  to  this  place  by  Nadr  Shah. 

About  1840  the  mullahs  of  Mashhad  resolved  that 


XL] 


JEWS  BECOME  MOHAMMEDANS. 


231 


by  some  means  the  Jews  resident  in  that  city  should 
be  converted  to  the  faith  of  Islam.  It  was  considered 
a  dishonour  to  the  holy  city  and  to  the  shrine  of  Reza 
that  the  adherents  of  Judaism  should  be  permitted  to 
live  in  the  city.  In  the  days  of  Moharam,  commem¬ 
orative  of  the  death  of  the  first  Imams,  the  report  was 
circulated  that  the  Jews  had  killed  a  dog  in  derision  of 
the  sacred  rites  of  the  Sheahs.  The  fact  appears  to 
be  that  a  Jew  suffered  from  a  sore  hand,  and  a  Moham¬ 
medan  doctor  being  called,  he  advised  that  the  hand 
be  laid  upon  the  warm  flesh  of  a  recently  slain  dog. 
The  advice  was  followed,  for  this  remedy  is  not  an  un¬ 
common  prescription.  The  incident,  either  by  design 
or  by  accident,  served  the  mullahs  as  a  pretext  to  ex¬ 
cite  the  populace  against  the  Jews.  The  mob  rushed 
to  the  Jewish  quarter,  and  after  massacring  some 
thirty-five  of  the  Jews,  and  tearing  down  some  of  their 
houses,  a  mullah  proposed  that  the  alternative  of  be¬ 
coming  Mohammedans  or  of  extermination  should  be 
offered.  The  Jews  chose  the  former,  and  the  elders 
of  the  colony  made  profession  for  their  co-religionists. 
Since  that  time  the  Jews  of  Mashhad  have  been  os¬ 
tensibly  Mohammedans,  and  dare  not  profess  any 
other  faith.  Some  of  the  colony  removed  to  Herat, 
where  they  enjoy  their  own  religious  faith,  and  others 
of  them  went  to  Merv. 

One  of  the  most  influential  Jews  of  this  city  is 

\ 

Benyamin.  He  is  a  British  subject,  and  receives  a 
pension  from  the  British  government.  This  honour 


232 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


was  bestowed  upon  him  in  consideration  of  services 
rendered  by  his  father  in  the  time  of  the  war  waged 
by  the  British  in  Afghanistan.  Many  of  the  English 
were  treacherously  massacred.  Two  English  officers 
were  secreted  by  the  Jew  in  Kabul  and  assisted  to 
effect  their  escape.  Efforts  were  now  made  to  reward 
their  deliverer;  but  he  had  been  detected  and  put  to 
death  by  the  Afghans.  On  investigation  it  was  learned 
that  his  young  son  had  been  taken  to  Mashhad.  A 
guardian  was  appointed  for  the  child,  he,  by  permis¬ 
sion  of  the  Shah,  having  been  made  a  British  subject, 
and  a  pension  of  seventy-five  rupees  a  month  has  ever 
since  been  paid  to  him.  Benyamin  is  now  a  man  in 
middle  life.  He  seemed  to  be  well  disposed,  and  de¬ 
sirous  that  his  children  should  receive  an  English 
education. 

The  synagogues  of  Mashhad  are  now  in  ruins.  I 
was  told  that  on  the  walls  of  one,  a  tablet  bearing  the 
names  of  the  massacred  had  been  placed.  The  Jews 
dare  not  openly  hold  religious  worship  after  the  forms 
of  the  synagogue.  Some  of  them,  however,  meet  in 
secret  for  reading  the  scriptures  and  other  services. 
The  change  of  religion  in  their  case  seemed  to  be 
outward  only.  They  are  well  acquainted  with  the 
Persian  language,  and  are  useful  to  the  Mohammed¬ 
ans  as  go-betweens  with  Turkmans  and  Afghans,  and 
as  doctors,  magicians  and  exorcists  and  merchants. 
In  such  capacity  they  travel  to  Merv,  Bokhara  and 
Herat;  Being  persecuted  by  the  Persians,  they  be- 


XI.] 


MASHHAD— NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


233 


come,  on  that  account,  more  acceptable  to  the  Sunees 
of  Central  Asia.  This  acceptableness  to  the  Sunee 
makes  them  hll  the  more  available  to  the  Sheahs. 

Mashhad  is  about  two  hundred  miles  from  Merv, 
and  but  a  little  more  than  this  distance  from  Herat.1  It 
is  really  the  frontier  town,  although  the  Shah  claims 
territory  to  Sarakhs  and  the  Tejend  River.  The 
country  east  of  this  is  often  in  the  possession  of  the 
Turkmans,  so  that  it  frequently  happens  that  there  is 
no  communication  with  Sarakhs  by  caravan.  The 
Turkmans  living  in,  or  frequenting  Mashhad,  are 
chiefly  of  the  Takah  tribe.  The  people  of  this  tribe 
who  live  in  the  city  are  employed  in  trade,  or  were 
captives.  Some  are  employed  in  conducting  caravans 
to  Merv  and  to  Bokhara.  These  men  were  ready  for 
a  consideration  to  conduct  us  safely  to  Bokhara. 
When  asked  what  assurance  could  be  given  of  pro¬ 
tection,  the  chief  man  replied :  “  My  brother  lives  in 
Merv,  and  it  is  known  that  if  any  harm  were  to  be 
done  to  me  or  my  caravan  he  would  certainly  re¬ 
taliate.” 

Much  has  been  said  with  reference  to  the  natural  re¬ 
sources  of  this  part  of  Khorasan.  If  report  be  true, 
copper,  coal  and  iron  abound.  The  precious  metals 
have  been  found.  There  is  a  hill,  less  than  a  farasang 
distant  from  the  city,  called  Kuhe  Sang,  which  yields 
gold  ore,  and  another  hill  whence  silver  is  obtained; 

1  By  the  shorter  route.  In  a  straight  line  the  distance  is  less,  being 
about  one  hundred  and  sixty  and  one  hundred  and  eighty -five  miles. 


234 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


but  the  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  produced  does 
not  pay  the  cost  of  working  the  mine.  Soapstone 
and  alabaster  are  abundant.  From  the  former  many 
vessels  are  turned,  as  also  from  the  alabaster.  A  beau¬ 
tiful  pink  alabaster  is  brought  from  near  Herat.  Mash¬ 
had  is  not  so  large  as  the  extent  of  its  walls  might 
lead  one  to  think.  Much  of  the  land  enclosed  is  in 
gardens,  and  some  near  the  walls  is  vacant.  Consid¬ 
erable  farming  is  done  on  the  land  just  outside  the 
walls.  I  noticed  fields  of  poppies.  The  traffic  in 
opium  has  been  very  profitable  in  some  parts  of  Khor- 
asan.  The  potteries  produce  a  coarse  earthenware 
and  tiles.  The  city  has  six  gates.  The  canal  has  a 
stream  of  water  which  is  no  more  than  from  three  to 
five  feet  wide.  The  shrine  of  Reza  possesses  a  library 
which  is  said  to  contain  many  manuscripts  and  old 
books  in  Persian  and  in  Arabic.  The  mosque  called 
Johare  Shahud  was  constructed  by  the  wife  of  Ti- 
mour,  a  Georgian  princess. 

Soon  after  entering  Mashhad  I  called  upon  the  gov¬ 
ernor  of  the  province,  a  brother  of  the  reigning  Shah. 
His  palace  appeared  to  be  in  a  dilapidated  condition. 
It  is  situated  in  the  western  part  of  the  town,  and  has 
extensive  gardens  connected  with  it.  It  was  arranged 
that  I  should  see  him  after  the  dispersion  of  the  crowd 
of  people  usually  gathered  in  the  dewan  khanah.  His 
Excellency  occupied  a  chair  on  a  low  platform  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  room.  He  usually  sits  upon  a  divan 
or  rug  spread  on  the  platform.  On  the  rug  at  his 


XL] 


MASHHAD— IMPORTANCE  OF 


235 


left  hand  sat  a  sayed,  and  below  him  the  mustofe.  The 
prince  appeared  to  be  a  man  of  about  forty  years  of 
age.  He  is  rather  below  medium  stature,  and  very 
stout  and  corpulent.  He  possesses  the  features  of  the 
Kajars.  His  address  is  marked  by  courteousness  and 
good  nature.  He  was  greatly  interested  in  the  news 
of  the  war  then  waged  by  Russia  and  Turkey.  He 
received  telegrams  from  Tehran,  which  he  read  to  me, 
and  repeated  some  of  the  wild  reports  then  in  circula¬ 
tion  concerning  the  movements  of  the  British  forces 
in  Beloochistan.  He  appeared  to  believe  the  story 
that  fifty  thousand  troops  had  advanced  into  Afghan¬ 
istan,  preparatory  to  a  move  on  Merv. 

The  importance  of  Mashhad  is  readily  understood 
by  those  persons  who  have  a  knowledge  of  the  country 
tributary  to  it.  During  many  centuries  important 
cities  have  flourished  in  this  region,  and  the  past  of  the 
country  gives  good  ground  upon  which  to  predict  the 
probable  future  of  this  district.  The  cities  of  Nisha- 
poor,  Tus  and  Mashhad  testify  to  the  advantages  of 
which  they  have  been  the  most  available  centres.  The 
climate  of  Mashhad  is  more  than  usually  healthful,  if 
we  may  judge  from  the  mortality  of  the  city.  This  is 
very  small  considering  the  large  number  of  pilgrims 
assembled  here,  the  lack  of  all  sanitary  measures,  and 
the  large  number  of  dead  interred  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  place.  The  average  temperature  of  this  city  is 
lower  than  in  Tehran.  The  altitude  and  latitude  of 
the  two  places  are  nearly  the  same,  yet  Mashhad  is 


236 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


cooler  than  the  capital  in  the  summer  season.  This 
fact  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  position  of  the  city  on 
the  northern  slope  of  the  mountains,  so  that  it  is  in 
good  measure  protected  from  the  winds  which  blow 
over  the  desert  of  Khorasan. 

A  more  particular  account  of  the  Turkmans  than 
has  been  given  on  the  preceding  pages  seems  to  be 
called  for.  The  relations  of  these  nomads  to  Persia 
form  a  subject  of  general  interest,  and  some  knowledge 
of  the  subject  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of  the 
present  and  future  of  Northeastern  Persia.  The  sub¬ 
ject  is  one  of  special  interest  at  this  time,  owing  to  the 
great  changes  effected  in  the  country  inhabited  by  the 
Turkmans,  through  the  advance  of  the  Russian  forces 
toward  Afghanistan,  and  the  prospective  and  permanent 
occupation  of  the  whole  Turkman  country  by  the  Rus¬ 
sians.  The  years  of  my  stay  in  Persia  cover  the  period 
of  this  transition.  It  is  the  greatest  change  in  its  pro¬ 
spective  results  and  present  effects  that  has  ever  taken 
place  in  Turkistan.  The  influence  of  the  change  reaches 
to  Afghanistan  and  compels  a  change  in  the  material  and 
whole  condition  of  the  people  of  that  distracted  country. 

In  Turkistan  anarchy  is  giving  place  to  a  settled 
government ;  the  alaman  or  chapoo,  and  slave  markets 
for  the  sale  of  white  captives,  are  becoming  incidents 
of  the  past,  and  henceforth  will  be  known  in  history 
only.  The  following  statements  are  made  upon  in¬ 
formation  obtained  chiefly  by  conversation  with  Turk¬ 
mans  and  Persians. 


XI.]  -  TURKMANS— DIFFERENT  TRIBES  OF 


237 


The  name  Turkman  Is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
the  word  Turk,  and  the  verb  man,  I  am,  and  hence 
means,  I  am  a  Turk.  The  name  is  then  obtained  from 
the  expression  by  which  these  people  called  themselves 
when  they  first  appeared  in  these  regions.  All  that 
country  between  the  Ural  Sea  on  the  north,  the  river 
Gorgan  and  the  mountains  called  Attak  on  the  south, 
the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  west,  and  the  Oxus  River  on 
the  east,  together  with  the  country  east  of  and  con¬ 
tiguous  to  that  river,  is  inhabited  by  several  tribes  of 
Turkmans.  The  country  between  the  Tejend  and 
Bokhara,  as  far  south  as  to  the  border  of  Afghanistan, 
is  also  to  be  included  in  their  possessions.  These 
tribes  have  kept  up  an  interminable  warfare  upon  one 
another,  and  upon  the  countries  adjacent  to  them. 
Through  this  internal  strife  marked  changes  have  been 
made  in  the  comparative  strength  of  the  tribes.  At 
this  time  it  is  conceded  that  the  Takah  are  the  most 
powerful.  These  and  the  Goklan,  a  few  Yomuts  and 
the  Salor  tribe,  hold  the  entire  country  lying  contigu¬ 
ous  to  the  border  of  Persia.  The  Yomuts  and  GoU- 
lans  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Gorgan  River.  The 
Salor  possess  a  small  tract  of  land  near  the  Tejend 
and  Afghanistan.  The  more  numerous  Takahs  in¬ 
habit  the  country  between  the  Goklan  and  Salor,  hav¬ 
ing  Merv  and  the  Kara  Koom  and  the  Domine  Kuh 
country.  No  great  dependence  can  be  placed  upon 
the  statements  of  these  people  as  to  their  strength,  for 
I  have  not  found  any  two  Turkmans  or  two  Europeans 


238 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


who  agree  in  their  statements  as  to  the  number  of 
tents  in  any  one  tribe.  I  have  before  me  the  estimates 
made  by  two  European  writers,  each  one  claiming  to 
be  the  result  of  careful  investigation  made  in  the  Turk¬ 
man  country  itself,  and  said  by  the  author  to  be  re¬ 
liable  ;  but  one  makes  the  number  of  the  tents  of  the 
Takahs,  after  a  reduction  of  one-third  of  the  figures 
given  by  natives,  to  be  sixty  thousand,  and  the  other 
writer  makes  the  number  seventy-five  thousand  tents. 
Some  of  the  khans  of  the  Takahs  said  to  me  that  the 
number  of  their  tents  could  not  be  safely  estimated  at 
more  than  forty  thousand. 

The  power  of  the  Goklan  and  Salor  tribes  is  so 
much  broken,  and  they  are  so  numerically  weak,  as 
to  form  no  very  important  factor  in  the  affairs  of  Turk- 
istan  and  Persia.  It  is  with  the  Takahs  that  Persians 
have  most  to  do.  The  country  inhabited  by  them  is 
the  best  in  Turkistan.  It  has  the  Tejend  and  the  Morgh 
Aub  rivers  as  sources  of  fertility.  The  centre  of  this 
region  is  the  place  called  Merv.  Although  there  is 
city  now  of  that  name,  yet  it  is  spoken  of  as  such 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  was  in  former  centuries  a 
flourishing  city,  and  in  most  of  the  years  past  there 
has  been  a  village  or  cluster  of  huts  and  tents  here.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  sites  known  in  Persian  his¬ 
tory,  for  it  figures  as  one  of  the  stations  occupied  by 
the  earlier  Arians  in  their  journeys  toward  the  west. 
It  was  an  important  provincial  town  in  the  times  of 
the  Khalafahs,  and  subsequently  became  a  capital  of 


XI.] 


TURKMANS— LANGUAGE  OF 


239 


a  dynasty  of  kings  who  ruled  a  large  part  of  Persia. 

It  was  destroyed  by  the  Moguls,  but  was  rebuilt,  and 
has  often,  since  then,  suffered  the  fortunes  of  war. 
The  present  place  of  that  name  is  composed  of  a  few 
huts  near  the  fort  called  Kalah  Kaushid  Khan.  It  is 
on  a  branch  of  the  Morgh  Aub,  and  is  noted  as  the 
centre  of  one  part  of  the  Takah  tribe,  who  for  this 
reason  are  known  as  Merv  Turkmans.  The  other 
division  of  this  tribe  has  its  tents  in  the  district  of 
Ahal.  This  place  is  northwest  of  Merv,  and  on  the 
Domine  Kuh,  and  has  Askabad  for  a  central  point.  It 
is  claimed  that  the  latter  country  was  the  home  of 
the  Parthians.  Nissa,  near  Askabad,  is  supposed  to 
represent  the  ancient  Nissse,  whence  were  derived  the 
famous  breed  of  Nissean  horses. 

The  Turkmans  have  no  fixed  habitations,  but  dwell, 
for  the  most  part,  in  frail  huts  of  wood  called  alotchee. 
These  are  light  and  portable,  and  the  sides  are  covered 
with  a  coarse  felt.  Ruder  structures,  however,  are 
used,  and  a  screen  of  felt  is  often  a  substitute  for  an 
alotchee.  The  language  spoken  by  these  nomads  is  ^ 
of  the  same  family  as  that  called  Turkish.  The 
Takah  dialect  is  allied  closely  to  that  of  the  Osmanlee, 
Persian-Turkish  and  to  the  Osbeg.  There  are  marked 
tribal  distinctions  and  provincialisms.  The  chief 
characteristics  of  the  speech  of  the  Takahs  are, — the 
absence  of  Persian  and  Arabic  words ;  the  sound  of 
certain  letters ;  a  peculiar  use  of  particles,  and  a  vo¬ 
cabulary  not  used  by  other  tribes.  This  speech  is 


240 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


commonly  called  Gaghatai,  in  distinction  from  some 
other  dialects  of  the  Turkish.  This  name  is  used 
loosely,  and  denotes  the  sway  in  Turkistan  of  a  speech 
and  literature  so  called  after  that  which  was  considered 
a  model  of  excellence  in  Central  Asia.  The  Takahs 
have  but  few  books.  Such  as  they  have  are  in  manu¬ 
script,  and  written  in  Arabic  characters.  A  few  books 
are  written  by  Takah  authors,  but  the  greater  part  are 
said  to  be  produced  in  Bokhara. 

By  religious  faith  the  Turkmans  are  allied  to  the 
Osmanlees  and  Afghans  and  the  so-called  Sunee  Mo¬ 
hammedans.  They  are  by  religious  prejudices  adver¬ 
saries  of  the  Persians.  The  religious  orders  among 
them  are  those  of  Islam.  They  possess  one  or  two 
schools  of  some  reputation  among  themselves,  where 
young  Turkmans  learn  to  read  the  Koran,  and  works 
on  rhetoric  and  theology.  The  mullahs  are  numerous, 
but  unlearned,  and  the  people  are  very  superstitious. 
The  belief  in  the  presence  of  demons  gives  occasion 
for  exorcists,  among  whom  the  itinerant  Jew  figures 
most  conspicuously  and  successfully.  He  recites  a 
passage  of  the  Old  Testament,  or  other  sacred  book, 
for  a  price,  and  he  often  sincerely  believes  that  his  ex¬ 
pedient  is  effectual  in  the  expulsion  of  demons  from 
the  people  possessed  by  them.  All  government 
among  the  Turkmans  is  patriarchal  and  democratic. 
All  measures  affecting  the  public  welfare  are  decided 
by  the  popular  vote  or  voice  in  public  assembly, 
called  jumhure.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  elders  and 


Jr 


XL]  TURKMANS— MORAL  CONDITION  OF  241 

khans  decide  all  questions.  Legislation  is  a  short 
process  in  their  assemblies.  The  khan  is  the  recog¬ 
nised  protector  of  his  subjects.  The  penalty  for  in¬ 
jury  received  is  retaliation.  Said  a  Turkman  khan  to 
me :  “  These  matters  are  usually  left  to  the  old  men, 
but  every  khan  must  protect  his  own  from  injury.  If 
wrong  is  done  to  any  of  my  men,  I  demand  repara¬ 
tion  ;  if  it  is  not  given,  I  call  my  men  together ;  we 
mount  our  horses  and  make  a  chapoo  to  the  nearest 
tents  of  the  offenders.  If  sheep  have  been  taken,  we 
drive  off  the  flocks  ;  if  a  man  has  been  slain,  we  kill 
the  people  of  the  encampment”  There  is  some  form 
of  law,  but  the  general  condition  is  that  of  anarchy. 

The  moral  condition  of  this  people  is  as  deplorable 
as  their  state  in  other  respects.  Polygamy  is  prac¬ 
tised  without  limit,  and  carries  with  it  all  the  physical 
and  moral  effects  of  unrestrained  licentiousness.  The 
chief  pursuit  of  the  men  is  war.  The  captives'  taken 
by  them  till  the  soil  under  the  supervision  of  women. 
The  females  care  for  the  flocks  and  herds,  and  also 
manufacture  coarse  fabrics  of  cotton  and  wool,  and 
the  much  admired  Turkman  carpets. 

The  Turkman  takes  great  pride  in  his  horses,  and 
these  are  justly  celebrated.  These  animals  are  quickly 
distinguished  from  horses  of  all  other  breeds.  The 
representative  horse  of  these  people  is  very  high ;  he 
has  a  long  and  slender  neck,  a  long  and  round  body, 
small  ears,  bony  head,  a  mild  eye  and  good,  though 

not  dashing,  carriage.  He  is  carefully  blanketed  at  all 

16 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


242 

times,  and  his  hair  is  short  and  glossy.  The  mane  is 
naturally  thin,  and  is  usually  shaven  close  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  neck.  Under  the  care  of  his 
master,  and  in  his  native  plains,  this  horse  is  very  ser¬ 
viceable,  and  has  great  powers  of  endurance.  He  will 
travel  at  a  good  rate  during  several  days ;  but  as  reared 
by  foreigners  he  is  of  little  account.  Horses  of  this 
breed,  if  of  pure  blood,  and  if  good  animals,  bring 
large  prices.  Very  fair  samples  of  the  breed  are  sold 
in  Tehran  for  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  tomans.  The 
very  best  specimens,  however,  bring  as  high  as  three 
and  five  hundred  tomans.  We  may  reasonably  sup¬ 
pose  that  this  breed  of  horses  was  in  this  region  of 
country  when  the  Turkish  tribes  took  possession  of  it, 
and  that  it  represents  the  noted  horses  of  ancient 
Bactria.  It  has  been  the  practice  of  the  Turkmans  to 
ravage  the  Persian  border.  The  word  chapoo  denotes, 
to  the  mind  of  a  native  of  the  country,  a  marauding 
excursion  in  which  the  horses  are  ridden  at  a  rapid 
pace,  and  the  object  is  plunder,  and  slaughter,  and 
captives. 

The  saying  is  current  with  this  people  that  no  offer¬ 
ing  is  so  acceptable  to  God  as  the  head  of  a  Kizil 
Bash,  or  Gold  Head.  This  name  was  given  to  a  royal 
guard  organized  by  Shah  Ismael,  the  founder  of  the 
Sufee  dynasty  of  Shahs.  The  term  was  taken  from 
the  peculiar  hat  prescribed  by  the  Shah  to  be  worn  by 
the  guard.  The  Shah  was  really  the  founder  of  the 
national  faith  called  Athna  Asherain,  or  the  Twelve 


XL] 


A  TURKMAN  CHAR 00. 


243 


Imams.  The  prescribed  hat  was  an  emblem  of  this 
religious  faith,  and  therefore  an  object  of  hatred  to 
Sunees,  and  used  by  them  as  a  term  of  reproach  by 
which  to  denote  the  Sheah  Persians.  The  hat  was 
made  of  twelve  pieces,  and  on  each  piece  the  name  of 
one  Imam  was  embroidered  in  gold. 

The  Turkman  Khans  and  the  tribe  may  be  at  peace 
ostensibly  with  Persia ;  but  there  is  a  common  consent 
to  the  opinion  that  Persians  are  lawful  objects  of  plun¬ 
der.  Whenever,  therefore,  any  one  proposes  a  chapoo, 
he  will  most  likely  find  volunteers  to  accompany  him. 
The  horses  are  put  in  trim.  To  each  saddle  is  fastened 
a  small  leather  bag  of  water,  a  bag  of  barley  cake  for 
the  horse,  and  a  little  food  for  the  rider.  The  weapons 
taken  are  a  ci meter  and  short  sword  called  kamah. 
Fifty  or  a  hundred  miles  may  be  travelled  very 
leisurely,  to  the  border  or  to  the  vicinity  of  a  Persian 
settlement.  Then  the  horses  are  put  to  a  gallop  which 
is  kept  up  during  the  attack  and  retreat.  When  his 
horse  becomes  weary  and  heated  from  thirst  and 
travel,  the  Turkman  dismounts  and  swabs  the  mouth 
and  throat  of  the  animal  with  a  bit  of  fat  carried  for 
this  purpose.  The  fat  may  also  be  given  the  horse  to 
eat.  The  old  and  infirm  among  the  prisoners  taken 
are  usually  slain.  The  young  and  strong,  especially 
females,  are  reserved  as  slaves.  If  taken  near  a  village 
or  in  the  vicinity  of  Persian  forces,  the  captives  are  put 
upon  the  horses  with  their  captors,  and  borne  beyond 
fear  of  pursuit.  Then  a  rope  is  put  about  the  neck  of 


244 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xi. 


the  captive  and  attached  to  the  horse’s  head  or  tail. 
When  the  party  arrive  at  the  Turkman  encampment 
there  is  a  public  reception  of  the  raiders  and  their 
captives.  A  Georgian  who  was  himself  taken  captive, 
and  his  sister  also,  related  to  me  how  they  were  re¬ 
ceived.  It  is  the  custom  that  the  Turkman  women 
shall  inflict  a  blow  upon  every  captive.  The  men,  he 
said,  got  off  with  few  strokes,  but  no  mercy  was  shown 
to  the  Persian  females.  The  poor  Georgian  woman  was 
killed  by  the  Turkman  women.  In  most  cases  the  cap¬ 
tives  are  stripped  of  their  clothing.  A  bag,  or  a  piece  of 
felt,  or  an  old  garment  is  given  instead.  The  captives 
are  set  to  work,  or  sold  as  opportunity  occurs.  Many 
of  them  are  sent  to  the  slave  markets  of  Bokhara. 
The  system  of  retaliation  has  been  perpetuated  by  both 
Persians  and  Turkmans.  A  chapoo  by  the  latter  is 
followed,  if  it  be  possible,  by  a  raid  upon  Turkman 
soil.  When  near  Mashhad  I  saw  many  flocks  of  sheep 
which  had  lately  been  driven  in  from  the  Turkman 
country.  The  practice  of  both  Turkmans  and  Per¬ 
sians,  of  sending  into  slavery  all  persons  taken  as 
prisoners  by  them,  was  terminated  by  Russia  in  the 
capture  of  Khevah,  and  by  the  terms  of  the  subse¬ 
quent  peace.  At  that  time  many  Persians  returned 
from  captivity.  There  was  a  mutual  release  of  cap¬ 
tives. 

Previous  to  this  time  there  was  an  old  caravansary 
in  Tehran  where  Turkman  captives  were  kept.  I 
sometimes  went  thither.  An  old  man  among  them  re- 


XI.]  TURKMAN  CONFERENCE  WITH  THE  SHAH  245 


lated  their  grievances.  He  seemed  to  think  his  own 
people  the  more  merciful  masters.  He  said:  “The 
Persians  treat  their  prisoners  with  more  cruelty  than 
we  Turkmans  exercise;  for  we  send  the  captives  to  the 
fields  to  work,  but  the  Persians  keep  us  shut  up  in  this 
miserable  place.”  The  caravansary  is  no  longer  stand¬ 
ing  ;  the  inmates  have  returned  to  their  homes  beyond 
the  Gorgon,  and  in  the  desert.  The  Turkman  marau¬ 
ders  now  say:  “We  kill  all  we  now  take;  for  Russia 
has  broken  up  the  slave  markets,  and  will  not  permit 
us  to  hold  slaves.” 

With  the  capture  of  Khevah  and  isolation  of  Bok¬ 
hara  the  trade  in  captives  was  wellnigh  abolished. 
Following  close  on  this  release  of  captives  there  was 
an  effort  at  alliance  with  Persia,  made  by  the  Turk¬ 
mans.  Being  defeated  at  Khevah,  and  seeing  a  fair 
prospect  of  attack  from  all  sides,  it  seemed  desirable 
to  the  Turkmans  to  make  peace  with  Persia.  In  pros¬ 
ecution  of  negotiations  for  this  purpose,  a  delegation 
of  these  nomads  waited  upon  the  Shah.  It  was  com¬ 
posed  of  seventy  of  the  chief  men  of  the  Takahs, 
Goklan  and  Salor.  The  result  was  not  wholly  satis¬ 
factory  to  the  delegation.  I  was  able  to  see  and  to 
talk  with  some  of  the  principal  parties  in  this  company. 
They  appeared  in  long  and  bright  scarlet  coloured 
gowns,  the  gift  of  the  Shah.  The  patriarch  of  the 
company  was  an  old  and  gray-headed  man  who  talked 
freely  of  his  people.  In  course  of  the  conversation 
he  pointed  toward  his  gown,  and  said,  “This  is  all 


246 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[xi. 


that  we  have  received  from  the  Shah.  He  ordered 
that  money  should  be  paid  to  us,  but  his  subordinates 
have  put  off  payment  until  it  will  be  mid-winter  before 
we  can  reach  our  homes.”  The  old  man  had  been 
trained  to  war.  All  his  thoughts  seemed  to  be  upon 
blood  and  booty.  The  question  was  put,  whether  he 
had  heard  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  replied :  “  I  think  you 
mean  that  Russian  general  who  came  down  over  the 
border  and  slaughtered  so  many  of  our  men.”  Then, 
seeming  to  think  that  his  answer  might  not  be  correct, 
he  said  :  “  Was  he  an  Englishman  ?  ” 

The  Persians  are  not  the  only  people  who  have  been 
taken  captives,  and  sold  as  slaves  by  the  Turkmans. 
Many  Russians  also  suffered  the  same  fate.  The  cha- 
poo  was  organized  for  the  devastation  of  the  Russian 
border  also,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Caspian  Sea  were 
frequented  by  them.  If  a  vessel  were  wrecked  upon 
the  coast,  and  by  chance  the  seamen  reached  the  shore, 
they  were  here  in  danger  of  attack.  Many  such  per¬ 
sons  escaped  the  violence  of  the  sea  only  to  serve  as 
slaves.  When  Khevah  was  taken,  the  Takahs  yet 
resisted,  and  concentrated  their  forces  to  oppose  the 
Russians. 

In  1880  the  Russian  forces  had  advanced  to  Yange 
Kalah,  and  a  railway  had  been  constructed  by  them 
from  Mekhailowsk  to  Kizil  Arwat  on  the  line  of  ad¬ 
vance  toward  Merv.  At  Yange  Kalah  the  advance 
had  accomplished  nearly  one  half  the  distance  or  about 
t\Vo  hundred  miles.  In  following  years  there  has  been 


XI.]  ' PROSPECTIVE  PERSIAN  IMPROVEMENTS.  247 


a  slow  but  steady  movement  forward,  and  a  submission 
of  the  Takah  and  other  Tribes  until  now,  in  1885,  the 
Russian  advance  is  found  at  Panj  Dah  on  the  river 
Morgh  Aub,  and  about  twenty  miles  north  of  the  re¬ 
puted  boundary  between  the  territory  subject  to  Herat, 
and  that  which  has  been  tributary  to  Merv.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  the  railway  will  be  extended  to  Panj  Dah 
aad  will  meet,  somewhere  in  that  region,  a  railway 
from  the  Indus.  There  will  thus  be  opened  a  high¬ 
way  for  commerce  between  India  and  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  Central  Asia.  This  would  give  the  quickest  and 
most  available  route  to  India  from  Europe.  The  in¬ 
fluence  of  these  present  and  prospective  improvements 
along  the  Persian  border  will  be  very  great. 

But  whatever  the  future  may  be,  Persia  now  enjoys 
peace  on  her  border.  The  Turkman  as  he  was,  the 
scourge  and  terror  of  Eastern  Persia  and  Central  Asia, 
has  ceased  to  be,  and  has  given  way  to  another  race. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


Area  of  Persia — Desert  of  Khorasan — The  Interior  of  Persia — The 
Shores  of  the  Seas  and  Altitudes — Mountain  Ranges — Highest  Peaks 
— Intermediate  Mountains — Rivers — Irrigation — Heat — Changes  of 
Seasons  and  the  Diseases  of  the  Country — The  Caspian  Coast — Soil 
— Productions — Cattle  and  Horses — Connaughts  and  their  Cost — Gar¬ 
dens — Agricultural  Implements — Raising  of  Stock — Coal  and  Min¬ 
erals — Population — Roving  Bands — State  of  Civilization — Languages 
— Literature — Scribes — Description  of  a  Persian  Book — Internal 
Improvements — Commerce — Cost  of  Living — Causes  Preventing  Im¬ 
provement — Imports — Exports — Carpets — Persian  Earthenware  and 
Glass — Silk  and  Velvet — Steel — Old  Work — Porcelain — Rare  Articles 
— Bricks  and  Masonry — Engraving — Hatim — Kalamdans  —  Mills — 
Wine — Process  of  Manufacture — Arak  or  Brandy — Unintoxicating 
Drink — Condition  of  the  People — Social  Customs — Salutations — The 
Sandals — Entertainment  of  Guests — Baths — Toilet  of  an  Old  School 
Persian — Habits  of  Life — Meals — Drunkenness — Penalty  for — The 
Precepts  of  Mohammed  as  to  Drink — Use  of  Opium — Sherbets  and 
Drinks — Food — Women  in  Public — Social  Entertainments  of  Women 
— Of  Men — Marriage  Rites — Funerals — Amusements — Persian  Houses 
— Palaces — Andarune  and  Berune — Musical  Instruments  and  Musical 
Taste — Music  Excluded  from  Worship — Vocal  Music — Introduction 
of  Foreign  Customs. 

The  area1  of  Persia  is  now  about  five  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  square  miles.  The  most  northern  point 
is  at  Mount  Ararat,  near  the  40th  parallel  of  latitude, 

1  The  area  within  settled  boundaries. 


248 


XII.] 


INTERIOR  OF  PERSIA. 


249 


and  the  most  southern  is  the  extremity  of  the  province 
of  Kerman  on  the  25th  parallel.  A  large  part  of 
this  area  is  desert.  The  desert  of  Khorasan  is  es¬ 
timated  to  cover  from  eighty-five  to  one  hundred 
thousand  square  miles.  As  the  boundaries  of  this 
desert  are  not  very  definitely  fixed,  it  might  be  ex¬ 
pected  that  the  estimate  of  area  will  vary  as  made  by 
different  persons.  The  interior  of  Persia  is  commonly 
described  as  an  elevated  plateau  ;  but  it  should  not  be 
supposed  that  the  plateau  is  a  level  tract  of  country, 
for  the  whole  land  is  mountainous.  It  is  character¬ 
ized  by  mountain  ranges  and  broad  plains.  Low 
lands  skirt  the  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  sections 
of  the  Persian  Gulf  coast.  The  interior  plains  have 
an  elevation  above  the  sea  of  from  two  to  six  thousand 
feet.  Some  parts  of  the  desert  of  Khorasan  are  much 
below  this  minimum,  and  it  has  been  conjectured  that 
in  some  places  the  desert  is  lower  than  the  surface  of 
the  ocean. 

On  the  north,  the  Elburz  mountains  rise  south  of 
the  Kur  and  Aras  rivers,  and  form  a  curve  corres¬ 
ponding  to  the  contour  of  the  southern  Caspian  coast, 
and  extend  eastward  to  the  Hindoo  Kush,  in  a  notable 
chain  of  mountains.  In  Eastern  Khorasan  the  El¬ 
burz  are  lower  than  in  the  west,  and  there  are  wide 
gaps  in  the  course  of  the  range  in  Western  Turkistan. 
The  highest  peaks  of  this  range  are  from  ten  to  twelve 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  except  Damavand,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  not  less  than  eighteen  thousand 


250 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xn. 


feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  This  mountain  is 
northeast  of  Tehran,  and  about  forty  miles  distant 
from  that  city.  It  is  the  cone  of  an  extinct  volcano. 
There  are  evidences  of  the  presence  of  internal  heat 
sufficient  to  justify  the  opiniofi,  that  the  mountain  may 
yet  become  an  active  volcano.  The  mountains  in  the 
vicinity  of  Damavand  form  the  most  elevated  region 
of  the  whole  range,  and  are  a  centre  of  clouds  and 
rain,  justifying  the  use  of  the  name  of  this  mountain, 
which,  in  Persian,  signifies  the  abundance  of  mist .  On 
the  northwest  the  Ararat  and  Kara  Dag  cover  the 
regions  between  the  Black  and  the  Caspian  seas,  and 
are  separated  from  the  Caucasus  by  the  river  Kur,  and 
washed  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Aras.  On  the  west 
the  Zagros  sever  Persia  from  Turkey,  and  under  many 
names  and  in  many  parallel  ranges  extend  in  a  south¬ 
easterly  course  through  Southern  Persia.  The  high¬ 
est  peaks  of  this  range  rise  to  an  altitude  of  ten  or 
fifteen  thousand  feet.  Between  these  great  ranges 
there  are  many  spurs  from  each,  which  interlock  and 
fill  the  land  with  a  mesh  of  mountains,  all  of  which 
are  destitute  of  verdure,  except  the  slopes  toward  the 
seas. 

In  ail  these  regions  there  are  no  great  rivers.1  Many 
small  streams  flow  from  the  mountains  into  the  desert 
of  Khorasan.  Their  waters  form  extensive  marshes 
and  lakes,  which  in  the  summer  quite  disappear,  leav¬ 
ing  the  bogs,  which  are  called  by  Persians  kabeers. 

1  The  great  rivers  touching  the  boundaries  are  not  considered. 


XII.] 


TEMPERA  TURE. 


251 


The  extensive  plains  and  valleys  are  irrigated,  if  at 
all,  by  artificial  watercourses.  As  the  country  is 
mountainous  and  barren,  the  degree  of  heat  and  cold 
may  be  conjectured.  Drouth  and  heat  prevail  from 
the  first  of  April  or  May  to  the  month  of  November. 
The  rainfalls  at  any  time  are  light.  The  summer  sun 
shines  from  a  cloudless  sky  with  an  intensity  unknown 
in  a  humid  atmosphere.  The  plains  become  heated, 
and  the  winds  which  blow  over  them  take  the  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  earth  and  stones.  These  are  often 
succeeded  at  night  by  very  cold  winds.  The  differ¬ 
ence  of  altitude  between  the  plains  and  the  mountains 
gives  a  great  difference  in  the  temperature  of  different 
places,  yet  the  heat  of  the  day  is  very  great  in  sum¬ 
mer,  even  in  the  very  high  positions.  Like  difference 
of  temperature  is  experienced  in  the  winter  time.  But 
only  the  lowest  plains  of  the  interior  are  free  from 
snow.  The  valleys  and  plains  which  have  an  eleva¬ 
tion  of  three  and  four  thousand  feet — and  but  few  are 
below  this — are  covered  in  all  the  northern  provinces 
with  deep  snow,  and  the  thermometer  registers  as 
low  as  eight  degrees  above  zero,  Fahrenheit.  The 
changes  of  seasons  are  gradual.  The  even  tempera¬ 
ture  and  dry  atmosphere  are  believed  to  be  healthful, 
and  diseases  of  the  throat  and  lungs  are  rare.  But 
heat  and  malaria  induce  fever  and  complaints  quite  as 

fatal. 

A  narrow  belt  of  land  on  the  Caspian  coast  is  noted 
for  its  humid  atmosphere,  dense  forests  and  malaria. 


252 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xii. 


The  border  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  lower  Tigris 
valley  are  intensely  hot.  The  soil  of  the  plains  is  a 
light  clay  or  loam,  and  is  very  fertile.  The  chief  pro¬ 
ductions  are  wheat,  barley,  cotton,  rice  and  fruits. 
In  some  provinces  tobacco  and  opium  are  grown. 
The  fruits  are  many  varieties  of  grapes,  apples, 
peaches,  pears,  quince,  pomegranates,  melons,  walnuts, 
almonds  and  oranges,  and  in  the  south,  dates ;  but  the 
small  berries  so  much  esteemed  in  other  countries  are 
here  unknown,  except  in  places  where  they  have  been 
introduced  by  foreigners,  and  are  grown  for  their  use. 
The  seedless  grape  is  most  esteemed  for  eating.  It 
is  small  and  sweet,  and  appears  to  have  no  injurious 
effects,  and  may  be  eaten  with  impunity. 

The  country  abounds  in  wild  animals.  The  tiger, 
bear  and  leopard  inhabit  the  forests  of  the  Caspian 
coast,  and  traverse  the  interior.  Lions  are  found  in 
the  warm  regions  of  the  south.  Wild  goats  and  deer 
are  most  abundant  in  the  mountains.  Aquatic  fowls 
frequent  the  ponds.  The  pelican  and  flamingo  are 
found  on  the  shores  of  the  inland  seas.  Of  birds  of 
song  the  nightingale  is  most  common  and  most  es¬ 
teemed.  Wild  asses  traverse  the  secluded  parts  of  the 
desert.  Wolves  are  abundant,  and  are  the  pest  of  the 
flocks,  and  often  attack  travellers  in  the  winter  season. 
Quite  every  village  is  resonant  at  night  with  the  cries 
of  the  jackals.  The  shepherd  dogs  are  large  and 
fierce,  and  one  of  them  is  said  to  be  well  able  to  kill  a 
wolf.  The  hunting  dogs,  or  hounds,  are  reared  with 


XII.]  AGRICULTURE.  253 

care,  and  are  much  admired.  Persian  cats  are  famed 
for  their  fox-like  tails  and  long  hair.  No  care  is  exer¬ 
cised  in  the  rearing  of  fowls,  and  the  breeds  are  small 
and  inferior.  A  few  years  ago  turkeys  could  not  be 
found  in  the  country.  So  rare  were  they  that  a  pair 
sold  in  Tehran  for  six  tomans.  The  domestic  cattle 
are  small  and  poorly  kept,  except  the  buffalo,  which 
is  reared  in  Western  Persia.  The  horses  are  Arab, 
Turkman  and  Persian  breeds.  Of  the  Persian  stock 
there  are  several  varieties  which  have  a  local  reputa¬ 
tion,  but  all  these  are  esteemed,  and  may  be  counted 
among  the  best  horses  in  the  world. 

The  state  of  agriculture  is  most  primitive.  The 
want  of  water  restricts  the  pursuit,  and  it  is  not  car¬ 
ried  on  in  any  very  extended  scale.  A  very  small 
parcel  of  land  is  sufficient  for  the  support  of  a  peas¬ 
ant.  The  irrigation  of  the  land  is  effected  by  subter¬ 
ranean  aqueducts.  These  are  constructed  by  digging 
a  series  of  wells,  and  connecting  the  wells  by  a  ditch 
at  the  bottom.  Such  watercourses  are  called  con- 
naughts.  They  are,  in  many  instances,  several  miles 
in  length,  and  are  constructed  at  considerable  expense. 
The  cost  of  some  connaughts  is  ten  and  twenty  thou¬ 
sand  tomans.  This  cost  can  be  borne  by  the  rich 
only,  for  stock  companies  are  rare.  For  this  and 
other  reasons  the  proprietorship  of  lands  and  villages 
is  with  the  rich  men.  The  owner  of  the  land  and 
water  supplies  the  tenant,  and  receives  two-thirds  or 
three-fifths  of  the  products,  according  to  the  productive- 


254 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[XII. 


ness  of  the  land.  The  gardens  and  vineyards  can  be 
possessed  by  the  well-to-do  people  only,  except  in  a 
few  favoured  places  where  water  is  abundant. 

The  implements  of  agriculture  are  of  the  rudest 
construction.  In  the  present  condition  of  the  people 
as  to  intelligence  and  capital,  it  is  probable  that  these 
implements  serve  their  purpose  better  than  the  more 
expensive  and  complicated  machines  of  other  countries 
would.  The  Persian  plow  is  a  sharpened  stick  covered 
with  iron.  It  is  sometimes  constructed  with  an  ar¬ 
rangement  for  raising  or  depressing  the  stick  which 
serves  as  a  share.  The  sickle  is  used  for  reaping.  The 
threshing  is  done  by  means  of  an  axle  set  with  thin 
iron  wheels.  The  wheels  cut  the  straw  very  fine.  The 
grain  is  beaten  out  by  the  feet  of  the  cattle  which 
draw  the  machine.  The  only  way  known  by  the  na¬ 
tives  to  clean  the  wheat  is  to  toss  it  in  the  wind  and  to 
wash  it.  Wheat  is  sown  in  the  autumn.  It  is  of  a  good 
quality,  and  is  harvested  in  June  or  July.  Corn  is 
rarely  raised.  The  only  variety  esteemed  or  grown  is 
popcorn.  Barley  is  grown  for  the  horses,  and  no  other 
grain  is  given  to  these  animals.  Clover  and  other 
very  nutritious  grasses  are  grown  for  cattle  and  horses. 
The  religious  scruples  of  Mohammedans  prevent  the 
keeping  of  hogs  and  the  eating  of  pork ;  but  the  Mo¬ 
hammedan  thinks  it  propitious  to  have  a  pig  in  the 
stable  yard. 

Horses  are  too  expensive  to  be  reared  or  owned  by 
the  poor ;  they  are  therefore  not  raised  in  very  large 


XII.] 


MINERALOGY. 


255 


numbers.  The  cost  of  foddering  cattle  is  also  too  great 
for  most  of  the  peasants ;  a  few  oxen  only  are  there¬ 
fore  kept  by  this  class  of  the  people.  Donkeys,  being 
very  hardy  and  costing  but  little  in  feeding,  are  raised 
in  large  numbers,  and  kept  by  the  poor  and  rich  alike. 
The  gray  donkeys  of  Khorasan  and  the  white  donkeys 
of  Bagdad  are  much  prized,  and  a  good  donkey,  trained 
to  the  saddle,  will  bring  a  better  price  than  a  fair  horse. 

The  mountains  of  Persia  are  known  to  contain  val¬ 
uable  minerals.  The  Shah  employs  a  mineralogist 
for  the  purpose  of  exploration  and  the  supervision  of 
mines,  but  the  government  is  reluctant  to  make  any 
investment  in  mining  operations.  The  most  exten¬ 
sively  worked  mines  are  those  of  turquois,  in  Khor¬ 
asan.  The  only  coal  mines  yet  opened  are  the  mines 
of  bituminous  coal  near  Casveen,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  Damavand.  Iron,  tin,  lead,  copper,  gold  and  silver 
are  imported  so  far  as  they  are  needed.  There  are 
periodical  excitements  in  the  capital  over  the  reputed 
discovery  of  gold,  and  the  Shah  orders  a  careful  ex¬ 
ploration.  But  he  is  not  satisfied  to  find  the  precious 
metal  in  any  other  condition  than  that  of  nuggets  of 
fine  gold. 

The  population  of  the  country  is  estimated  at  from 
five  to  ten  millions.  As  no  census  is  taken,  it  is  im¬ 
possible  to  make  an  approximate  estimate.  The  re¬ 
ligious  orders  are  opposed  to  any  numbering  of  the 
people.  It  is  quite  certain  that  were  a  census  to  be 
taken  it  would  be  wholly  unreliable.  All  the  estimates 


256 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xii. 


hitherto  made  by  Europeans  are  no  more  than  random 
guesses,  and  are  without  any  foundation ;  for  neither 
the  assessments  for  taxes  nor  the  military  conscription 
furnish  any  reliable  basis  for  a  calculation.  The  pop¬ 
ulation  is  made  up  chiefly  of  two  great  races ;  the 
Iranian  or  pure  Persian,  and  the  Turanian,  as  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  Tartar  and  Turkish  tribes.  The  race 
distinctions  have  disappeared  to  some  extent,  but  they 
are  perpetuated  in  many  tribes  and  clans,  as  the 
Afshars,  the  Kajars,  Kara  Kopaks,  Turkmans,  Gelee, 
Kurds,  Loree  and  Baktearee. 

The  Baktearee  inhabit  the  Zagros  in  Southern  Per¬ 
sia.  Near  them  are  the  Loree.  Each  has  a  jargon 
peculiar  to  itself.  They  are  very  often  in  rebellion 
against  the  governors,  and  are  notorious  robbers,  who 
frequently  perpetrate  acts  of  violence  toward  other 
tribes,  especially  upon  Armenians.  The  people  of 
Gelan  are  believed  to  represent  the  ancient  Gelse.  The 
Elyots  are  herdsmen  and  shepherds  who  live  in  tents, 
and  migrate  with  the  change  of  season.  The  Bar- 
barees  appear  to  be  roving  bands  like  the  gypsies.  It 
has  been  said  that  there  are  upward  of  seventy  dis¬ 
tinct  tribes  in  Persia,  every  one  of  which  has  a  speech 
peculiar  to  itself.  The  people  of  the  large  towns  man¬ 
ifest  a  fair  degree  of  civilization,  and  some  refinement. 
The  districts  remote  from  the  principal  cities  are  peo¬ 
pled  by  fierce  and  lawless  clans,  who  are  restrained 
from  violence  by  fear  of  the  authorities  only. 

The  two  languages  most  commonly  spoken  in  Per- 


XII.] 


LANGUAGE. 


257 


sia  are  the  Persian  and  the  Turkish.  If  the  people  of 
the  province  of  Azarbijan  be  excepted,  it  may  with 
truth  be  said,  that  quite  all  the  people  speak  the  Per¬ 
sian.  It  should  not  be  thought  that  one  and  only  one 
of  these  tongues  is  known  to  the  people.  With  the 
exception  made,  it  may  truly  be  said  that  in  the  north¬ 
ern  provinces  the  most  part  of  the  people  understand 
both  tongues.  In  the  south  the  Persian  is  known  to 
all. 

The  Turkish  spoken  in  Persia  is  essentially  the  same 
speech  as  that  sometimes  called  trans-Caucasian  Turk¬ 
ish  and  Azarbijan  Turkish.  It  is  spoken  by  the 
Turkish  part  of  the  population  in  the  north,  from  the 
eastern  to  the  western  boundary.  The  Persian  tongue 
is  greatly  corrupted  by  words  of  Arabic  origin,  so 
that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  master  the  language  with¬ 
out  some  knowledge  of  Arabic.  The  Persians  have 
quite  abandoned  the  grammar  of  pure  Persian,  and 
have  no  knowledge  of  any  other  than  Arabic.  There 
seems  to  be,  however,  a  tendency  to  the  use  of  Persian 
words,  and  many  of  the  books  published  show  less 
Arabic  than  books  composed  in  former  times.  The 
Persian  is  classed  with  the  Indo-European  family  of 
tongues,  and  is  one  of  the  most  euphonious.  A  Euro¬ 
pean  or  American  travelling  in  that  country  will  recog¬ 
nize  the  words  mader  and  brader.  The  old  Persian, 
free  from  Arabic  words,  is  yet  spoken  in  some  of  the 
secluded  regions.  The  introduction  of  the  Arabic  to 
the  country  came  with  the  conquest  of  the  land  by  the 

17 


258 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xii. 


Arabs ;  but  the  perpetuity  of  that  element  is  due  to 
the  Koran,  and  the  religious  books  and  form  of 
worship. 

The  literature  of  the  country  is  extensive.  It  em¬ 
braces  works  of  history,  poetry,  theology,  philosophy, 
and  works  in  every  department  of  knowledge.  Books 
are  now  produced  by  the  lithographic  process.  Not 
many  years  ago  they  were  made  by  hand  only.  Very 
many  are  yet  made  in  this  way,  and  are  more  prized 
than  the  printed  volumes,  as  now  produced  by  litho¬ 
graphy.  Many  of  these  manuscripts  are  written  with 
great  beauty.  Special  care  wras  taken  by  the  mirzas 
in  transcribing  copies  of  the  Koran  and  of  the  poets. 
The  former  may  be  found  condensed  in  a  very  small 
volume,  no  larger  than  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half 
square.  The  usual  size  is  much  larger.  The  letters 
are,  in  many  books,  written  in  gilt,  and  this  work  of 
illumination  is  very  beautiful.  The  Persian  scribes 
are  excellent  penmen,  and  some  of  them  have  become 
famous  for  their  skill.  All  the  books,  however,  con¬ 
tain  many  errors.  The  lithographic  process  is  thought 
to  mar  the  beauty  of  the  writing.  Owing  to  many 
errors  and  to  bad  printing  most  books  are  read  with 
some  difficulty.  Many  of  the  literary  works  are  volu¬ 
minous.  Here,  as  in  other  Eastern  countries,  the 
books  are  read  from  the  right  hand  to  the  left.  It  is 
usual  to  begin  every  book  with  an  inscription  “  in  the 
name  of  God  most  merciful,”  and  the  introduction  is 
composed  in  the  most  pompous  style  and  difficult 


XII.] 


IMPRO  VEMENTS. 


259 


Arabic  terms.  The  last  page  closes  with  the  date  of 
composition  or  transcription,  and  with  the  name  either 
of  the  author  or  of  the  transcriber.  Men  of  learning 
among  the  Persians  are  much  given  to  book-making, 
and  some  of  the  rich  have  collected  large  libraries. 
The  Persian  poets  are  greatly  admired,  and  freely 
quoted  by  the  unlearned  and  the  educated. 

In  internal  improvements  Persia  is  one  of  the  most 
unprogressive  countries.  The  capital  has  been  con¬ 
nected  by  telegraph  with  every  provincial  capital. 
Since  1876  an  efficient  postal  service  has  been  in 
operation.  The  country  at  large  has  witnessed  no 
other  improvements.  .  The  telegraph  lines  were  con¬ 
structed  by  European  superintendents,  and  the  postal 
system  was  organized  by  a  foreigner  in  the  pay  of  the 
Shah.  The  only  wagon  road  of  any  considerable 
length  is  the  road  from  Tehran  to  Casveen.  All 
efforts  on  the  part  of  Europeans  to  secure  the  privi¬ 
lege  of  constructing  a  railway  have  proved  failures, 
for  the  reason  that  the  Shah  could  not  make  the  in¬ 
vestment  of  foreign  capital  secure,  and  would  not 
incur  the  risk  himself.  The  extensive  plains  of  the 
interior,  connected  one  with  another  as  they  are,  offer 
an  open  way  for  railroads.  It  would  seem  to  be  pos¬ 
sible  to  construct  them  with  ease,  and  to  maintain 
them  at  a  small  expense.  At  the  present  time  the 
great  cost  of  the  transportation  of  produce  and  mer¬ 
chandise  retards  the  small  business  which  is  carried 
on,  and  prevents  that  which  might  be  created.  All 


26o 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xii. 


exports  must  be  carried  to  the  seacoast  on  the  backs 
of  camels  or  other  beasts  of  burden.  The  cost  of 
wheat  delivered  at  the  port  is  about  equivalent  to  six 
dollars  for  every  seven  hundred  pounds ;  but  the  im¬ 
ported  calico  is  sold  at  from  eighteen  to  twenty  shahee 
per  Persian  zarh. 

The  cost  of  living  in  the  country  has  greatly  in¬ 
creased  in  the  course  of  a  few  years.  The  increasing 
wants  of  the  rich  impel  to  greater  extortion,  and  while 
a  few  people  are  growing  richer,  the  peasants  are  grow¬ 
ing  poorer,  if  that  be  possible,  and  the  whole  country 
is  falling  into  a  financial  stress,  the  only  remedy  for 
which,  in  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  is  a  reduction 
of  the  population  by  war  and  famine.  There  is  an 
utter  want  either  of  capacity,  or  of  a  disposition  to  im¬ 
prove  the  country.  The  intentions  of  the  Shah  may 
reasonably  be  supposed  to  be  good  toward  his  own 
subjects,  but  the  universal  prevalence  of  greed  and 
dishonesty  nullifies  every  good  device,  even  if  it  does 
not  prevent  the  capacity  to  discover  a  good  expedient. 

The  articles  imported  are  from  Russia  chiefly. 
Many  commodities  are  brought  from  other  countries. 
They  are  prints,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  sugar  and 
fancy  articles.  The  importation  of  calico  exceeds  that 
of  all  other  commodities.  The  exports  are  wheat,  rice, 
fruits,  opium,  wood,  wool,  cotton  and  hides.  Of  manu¬ 
factures,  a  few  carpets  and  shawls  are  exported.  Carpets 
are  of  three  kinds  and  distinguished  by  the  names, 
kale,  namad  and  gelim.  The  first  is  woven  of  fine 


XII.] 


MAN  UFA  C  TURFS. 


261 


wool,  and  in  many  designs.  The  best  grades  of  this 
kind  sell  in  the  markets  at  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
karans  the  Persian  square  zarh.  The  varieties  of 
kalies  are  denoted  by  names  taken  from  the  place  of 
manufacture ;  so  there  are  the  Faraghan,  the  Khorasan, 
the  Herat,  Turkman  and  Kurd.  The  best  grades  of 
all  these  varieties  are  very  beautiful,  but  in  Persia  the 
first  named  is  considered  the  best.  The  namads  are 
unwoven,  and  are  made  by  pounding  wool  in  a  mass 
while  moist.  The  patterns  are  formed  by  pounding 
coloured  wool  into  the  surface  of  the  namad.  The 
namads  of  Ispahan  are  the  best.  The  gelim  is  usually 
mad£  of  coarse  wool,  woven  in  stripes  of  different  col¬ 
ours.  There  are,  however,  other  patterns.  Very  large 
rugs  of  silk  are  made  in  some  places,  but  they  are  rare. 
The  kalies,  namads,  and  gelims  are  usually  made  in 
rugs  containing  each  about  twelve  or  twenty  square 
zarhs ;  but  very  large  carpets  are  sometimes  made  to 
order.  I  have  seen  namads  fully  seventy-five  feet  long 
and  fifty  feet  wide.  The  kalies  retain  their  beauty  and 
lustre  for  many  years.  Carpets  are  shown  in  some 
places,  which  have  been  kept  in  fair  condition  for  two 
hundred  years.  The  namads  are  likely  to  be  moth- 
eaten  in  a  short  time,  if  they  are  not  well  cared  for. 
Very  small  kalies  are  woven,  called  joi  namaz,  or  place 
of  prayer ;  they  are  used  to  kneel  upon  in  prayer  time 
in  the  mosques,  and  some  of  them  are  very  pretty. 
The  best  of  the  work  called  Reshtee  is  formed  by  set¬ 
ting  designs  in  a  groundwork  of  cloth.  It  is  a  sort  of 


262 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xn. 


mosaic  in  cloth.  It  is  used  for  slippers,  caps,  saddle 
cloths,  and  stand  covers. 

Quite  every  Persian  house  is  provided  with  one  or 
more  good  rugs,  which  are  used  in  place  of  chairs. 
These  will  be  found  in  the  dwellings  of  the  poorest 
people  as  well  as  in  the  homes  of  the  rich.  The  arti¬ 
cles  manufactured  by  Persians,  besides  carpets,  are 
vessels  of  copper,  earthenware,  and  silk  and  cotton 
fabrics.  Cooking  utensils  are  made  of  copper;  for 
Persians  have  not  the  art  of  casting.  The  copper  ves¬ 
sels  are  covered  with  an  amalgam  of  tin. 

Persian  earthenware,  as  now  manufactured,  is  very 
poor ;  the  markets  are  therefore  supplied  with  china, 
and  ware  brought  from  Europe.  Glass  is  made  in  the 
country  in  small  quantities,  and  rude  bottles  are  manu¬ 
factured  ;  but  window  glass  and  glassware  are  all 
imported.  The  best  Persian  shawls  are  made  of  very 
fine  wool  of  sheep  and  goats,  as  well  as  of  camels’ 
hair.  They  are  made  in  Kerman.  Those  manufac¬ 
tured  in  Khorasan  are  less  valuable  than  the  Kerman 
shawls.  Silk  and  velvet  fabrics  are  made  in  Yezd  and 
Kashan,  and  in  some  other  places.  Much  of  the  raw 
silk  is  exported.  These  and  quite  all  other  fabrics  are 
woven  in  the  dwellings  of  the  people.  Cotton  and 
woolen  factories  as  constructed  in  Europe  and  America 
are  unknown  here.  Good  steel  is  made  in  some  cities ; 
usually  it  is  made  into  knives  and  cimeters. 

Quite  all  the  articles  made  in  former  times  are 
superior  to  the  manufactures  of  the  present  day.  This 


xn.] 


MANUFA  CTURES , 


263 


superiority  is  noticeable  especially  in  pottery,  tiles, 
shawls  and  embroidery.  The  varieties  of  porcelain 
and  pottery  are :  an  imitation  of  china ;  a  white,  very 
thin  and  translucent  species  of  porcelain ;  the  refle, 
called  by  Persians  talae  or  golden,  from  the  play  of 
colours  in  the  enamel.  Tiles  of  the  refle  were  used  in 
ornamenting  the  walls  of  mosques,  and  baths,  and  as 
tablets.  Tiles  have  been  found  bearing  dates  which 
showed  that  they  were  made  as  early  as  eight  hundred 
years  ago.  These  articles  of  old  work  are  much 
sought,  and  are  now  rare.  Many  of  the  designs  of 
Persian  ware,  both  old  and  new,  are  very  beautiful. 

# 

Persian  bricks  are  about  eight  inches  square ;  but 
very  large  tiles  for  pavements  are  also  made.  En¬ 
ameled  tiles  for  facing  gateways  are  of  many  forms  and 
sizes.  Hunting  scenes,  portraits  and  landscapes  are 
wrought  in  a  mosaic  of  these  enameled  tiles  and 
brick.  Much  skill  is  shown  in  etching  and  engraving 
brass  and  in  wood  carving.  The  work  called  hatim 
is  much  used  in  toilet  boxes,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  tables.  It  is  a  mosaic  made  of  ivory  or  bones. 
Kalamdans,  book  covers,  and  small  boxes  are  made 
of  paper,  and  are  very  firm  and  durable.  The  work 
is  a  sort  of  papier  mache. 

Persian  flour  mills  are  of  very  simple  construction. 
The  wheat  is  ground  by  two  large  millstones,  which 
are  turned  by  a  large  water-wheel.  The  flour  is  un¬ 
bolted  and  must  be  sifted  for  use,  if  white  flour  be 
desired.  Wine  is  made  in  the  houses  of  Armenians, 


264 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xii. 


Jews  and  Guebers.  The  process  of  manufacture  is 
very  simple.  The  grapes  are  trodden  in  a  vat  made 
for  the  purpose.  The  juice  of  the  grapes  is  poured 
into  very  large  jars,  and  after  fermentation  is  put  in 
glass  bottles.  Arak  is  distilled  from  wine,  or  from 
dried  grapes.  The  process  is  carried  on,  as  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  wine,  in  private  houses.  A  drink  which  is 
not  intoxicating  is  made  of  the  juice  of  the  unripe 
grapes.  It  is  kept  during  the  year,  but  is  not  es¬ 
teemed  as  wine. 

The  greater  part  of  the  people  of  Persia  are  very 
poor.  The  tenants  or  agriculturists  are  the  poorest 
class.  The  faalas  are  day  labourers.  Common  work¬ 
men  receive  from  fifteen  to  twenty  shahees  per 
day.  A  mason  or  a  carpenter  receives  about  forty  or 
fifty  shahees.  The  masons  are  skilful  in  laying  brick. 
There  is  comparatively  little  work  for  carpenters. 
They  make  doors  and  windows,  and  in  the  large  cities 
they  make  chairs,  bedsteads  and  tables.  Much  use  is 
made  of  a  cement  of  gypsum  for  plastering  walls  and 
in  ornamental  work.  The  plasterers  are  in  good 
demand.  The  merchants  are  in  a  better  financial  con¬ 
dition  than  the  labourers  or  artisans.  The  rich  men 
are  found  mostly  in  the  number  of  princes  and  office¬ 
holders.  A  merchant  who  has  property  to  the  value  of 
ten  thousand  pounds  is  thought  to  be  very  rich.  Some 
of  the  chief  officers  of  the  government  are  possessors 
of  property  to  the  value  of  a  million  or  more.  The 
social  life  and  customs  of  the  people  are  in  the  main 


XII.] 


CUSTOMS. 


265 


those  of  all  Orientals ;  but  there  are  manners  peculiar 
to  race  and  religion. 

There  is  a  common  salutation  of,  “  Peace  be  with 
yOU  ” — the  salam  alakim  of  the  Mohammedan — and 
the  Persian  khodafis  spoken  in  parting,  or  the  prayer, 
“  May  your  shadow  never  grow  less.”  The  sandals 
or  low  shoes  are  left  in  the  outer  hall  by  one  who 
enters  the  guest-room.  Europeans  are  permitted  to 
follow  their  own  custom  in  this  particular,  but  they 
usually  manifest  respect  for  themselves,  and  the  cus¬ 
tom  of  the  country,  by  wearing  overshoes,  which  are 
drawn  from  the  boots  on  entering  a  house.  It  is  con¬ 
sidered  a  breach  of  etiquette  to  remove  the  hat  from 
the  head.  It  is  the  practice  of  all  the  people  to  enter¬ 
tain  every  visitor  with  tea  or  coffee  and  the  kalyon. 
Tiny  cups,  holding  no  more  than  a  few  thimblesful, 
are  used.  The  kalyon  is  a  pipe  arranged  so  that  the 
smoke  of  the  tobacco  may  be  drawn  through  water. 
The  small  bowls  holding  the  tobacco  are  often  of  sil¬ 
ver  or  gold,  and  are  highly  ornamented  with  precious 
stones.  The  use  of  the  kalyon  is  universal  with  both 
males  and  females.  It  is,  therefore,  to  be  seen  in  the 
house  and  in  the  place  of  business. 

The  public  bath  is  frequented  by  all  classes  of  the 
people,  and  much  time  is  spent  in  it.  The  buildings 
used  as  baths  are  constructed  of  brick,  and  the  rooms 
are  wholly  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in  order 
to  be  below  the  streams  of  water  by  which  the  bath 
is  supplied.  The  water  is  heated  in  large  tanks.  The 


266 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xn. 


bath-room  is  paved  with  enameled  tiles  and  covered 
with  a  brick  dome,  in  which  a  few  panes  of  thick  glass 
are  set  to  admit  light.  The  bath-room  is  filled  with 
steam,  and  the  water  is  poured  upon  the  body  by  an 
attendant.  A  tea  shop  is  usually  kept  near  the  bath¬ 
house,  and  the  bath  is  commonly  followed  by  tea 
drinking,  which  seems  to  be  quite  essential  after  the 
exhaustion  of  the  sweating  occasioned  by  the  bath. 

The  Persian  of  the  genuine  type  and  old  school 
hardly  thinks  himself  in  a  condition  to  be  seen  until 
his  hair  and  beard  have  been  dyed,  and  his  finger¬ 
nails  stained,  if  not  his  fingers  also.  He  rises  at  the 
early  dawn  or  time  of  the  azon,  and  repeats  the  usual 
prayer ;  and  having  drunk  a  cup  of  tea,  if  he  be  rich 
enough  to  afford  it,  he  goes  to  the  field  or  to  his  shop. 
At  ten  o’clock  he  sits  down  in  his  place  of  business 
to  eat  a  breakfast  of  bread  and  sour  milk  which  has 
been  brought  upon  a  tray  and  set  before  him.  The 
hours  of  midday,  in  summer,  are  passed  in  sleep. 
Labour,  when  resumed,  is  continued  until  sunset.  The 
principal  meal  of  the  day,  and  the  best  he  can  afford, 
of  meat,  rice,  and  savory  dishes,  is  partaken  of  in  com¬ 
pany  with  the  members  of  his  family,  and  after  night¬ 
fall,  and  in  the  open  court  of  the  house,  or  upon  the 
roof.  If  inclined  to  drink  wine  and  arak,  the  most 
approved  custom  is  to  indulge  at  this  hour.  He  sa¬ 
tiates  his  thirst,  if  that  be  possible,  by  drunkenness, 
having  first  taken  the  precaution  of  locking  the  doors 
and  going  to  bed.  It  happens,  therefore,  now  as  in 


XII.] 


MOHAMMEDAN  PRECEPTS. 


267 


ancient  times,  that  “  They  that  be  drunken  are  drunken 
in  the  night.”  It  should  not  be  thought,  however, 
that  all  lovers  of  strong  drink  are  so  obedient  to  cus¬ 
tom.  If  the  drinker  be  a  Mohammedan,  he  runs 
some  risk  of  fine,  disgrace,  or  a  flogging.  If  a  Jew 
or  a  Christian,  he  may  drink  with  impunity.  The 
popular  sentiment,  and  some  fear  of  Mohammedans, 
make  it  expedient  that  he  should  drink  in  secret. 

The  precepts  of  Mohammed  concerning  the  use  of 
wine  and  strong  drink  seem  to  have  been  suggested  by 
the  drunkenness  prevalent  among  the  Arabs  and  other 
people.  The  first  word  spoken  by  Mohammed  against 
the  practice  is  said  to  have  been  utteied  when  a 
drunken  man  reviled  him.  Very  many  Mohammed¬ 
ans  drink  to  drunkenness  ;  yet  the  law  and  popular 
sentiment  is  against  drink.  A  consistent  Moham¬ 
medan  thinks  himself  to  be  defiled  by  the  taste,  touch, 
or  even  odour  of  wine  or  brandy.  Opium  is  used  to 
excess  by  many  of  the  people,  and  hasheesh  is  also 
drunk,  and  arsenic  is  eaten.  Bad  as  these  practices 
are  they  are  not  so  unpopular  as  the  use  of  intoxi¬ 
cating  drink.  Sherbets  of  several  kinds  are  freely 
used  in  hot  weather,  and  tea  is  drunk  by  all  who  can 
get  it.  Lemon  water  is  made  in  large  quantities.  Ice 
is  abundant  in  all  the  northern  provinces.  To  obtain 
it,  long  canals  or  ponds  are  made  and  protected  from 
the  sun  by  a  high  wall  constructed  on  the  south  side 

of  the  water. 

The  food  of  the  average  Persian  consists  of  bread, 


268 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xii. 


meat,  rice,  fruit  and  vegetables.  There  are  several 
kinds  of  bread,  and  quite  all  made  of  unbolted  flour. 
The  bread  called  sangak  is  a  leavened  cake  mixed 
with  water,  and  baked  on  small  stones  in  an  oven 
made  for  the  purpose.  The  pebbles,  after  being 
washed,  are  spread  upon  an  iron  plate,  and  then  put 
into  the  oven ;  when  the  stones  are  heated,  the  thin 
cake  of  dough  is  spread  upon  them  and  then  baked. 
The  cake  is  large  and  thin.  This  kind  of  bread  is  to 
be  had  only  in  large  cities  where  ovens  are  made  for 
baking  it.  Lavash  is  the  name  of  the  common  bread 
as  baked  in  the  ovens  made  in  the  ground.  The  only 
difference  between  this  and  the  former  is  in  the 
qualities  imparted  by  the  different  processes  of 
baking. 

The  meat  most  used  is  mutton.  Beef  is  kept  for 
sale  in  the  large  cities,  and  in  the  winter  season  only. 
The  most  common  way  of  cooking  the  mutton  is  to 
make  what  are  called  kabobs.  These  are  made  in  sev¬ 
eral  ways  ;  by  broiling  on  a  spit,  or  by  chopping  the 
meat  and  pressing  it  into  a  cake,  which  is  fried.  Pota¬ 
toes  are  not  commonly  known  in  the  country.  They 
were  grown  for  the  use  of  foreigners,  but  are  now 
grown  by  Persians  for  the  market.  The  name  by  which 
the  potato  is  called  is  a  literal  translation  of  the  French 
pomme  de  terre,  or  apple  of  the  earth.  All  the  sugar 
used  is  imported  ;  but  fair  syrup  is  made  of  the  juice 
of  grapes.  Rice  is  more  used  than  any  other  article 
of  food,  except  bread.  The  common  dish  of  rice  is 


XII.] 


SOCIAL  ENTER TA INMENTS. 


269 


the  pelow.  It  is  rice  boiled  in  water,  and  then,  after 
separation  from  the  water,  is  heated  and  mixed  with 
butter.  Rice  is  grown  in  abundance,  and  is  very 
cheap. 

In  all  formal  social  entertainments  there  is  an  entire 
separation  of  men  and  women.  Women  frequent  the 
assemblies  in  the  mosques  and  the  tazeahs,  but  always 
in  the  dress  which  custom  has  prescribed  for  the  street 
and  public  places.  The  social  entertainments  of  the 
women  consist  in  feasting,  eating  of  candies,  in  gossip, 
and  dancing  by  hired  dancing  girls  or  boys.  The 
reading  of  the  Persian  poets  is  sometimes  one  feature 
of  an  entertainment.  A  dervish  or  a  mullah  may  be 
employed  for  this  purpose;  he  being  stationed  in 
another  apartment  of  the  harem.  The  entertainments 
of  the  men  are  a  feast,  smoking,  and  drinking  of  sher¬ 
bets.  Their  amusements  are  card-playing,  horse¬ 
racing,  ram  fights,  and  hawking,  and  hunting.  The 
marriage  feast  continues  several  days.  The  legal  act 
concludes  with  the  procession  to  the  house  of  the 
bridegroom.  This  procession  is  often,  but  not  always, 
in  the  night.  If  in  the  night  it  is  attended  with  fire¬ 
works  and  torches,  according  to  the  ability  of  the 
parties  most  interested.  It  is  customary  that  the 
bridegroom  should  furnish  the  bridal  dress,  and  the 
presentation  of  this  is  an  important  part  of  the  ceie- 
monies.  The  betrothal  occurs  at  the  early  ages  of 
eight  and  ten  years,  and  marriage  as  early  as  the  ninth 
year,  though  it  is  rarely  celebrated  so  early.  It  is  yet 


270 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xii. 


more  rare  after  the  sixteenth  year,  except  in  the  case 
of  widows. 

Funerals  are  attended  with  wailing  and  feasting. 
The  presence  of  hired  mourners  is  very  rare.  The 
formalities  consist  of  wrapping  the  body  in  cotton 
cloth  in  which  it  is  interred,  no  coffin  being  used,  and 
in  the  reading  of  the  Koran,  and  recitation  of  prayers 
by  a  mullah.  The  body  is  placed  on  a  rough  bier  and 
carried  on  the  shoulders  of  several  men,  or  it  is  borne 
to  the  place  of  burial  on  a  taktravan.  If  formal,  the 
procession  is  preceded  by  the  mullah,  who  recites  from 
the  Koran  by  the  way.  In  most  cases  of  poor  people 
there  is  no  procession.  The  body  is  interred  during 
the  recitation  by  the  mullah.  It  is  customary  to  read 
the  Koran  over  the  grave  at  stated  times,  especially 
on  the  anniversary  of  the  death.  The  interment  usu¬ 
ally  takes  place  on  the  day  of  death,  or  within  the 
next  twelve  hours  after  death. 

The  amusements  of  Persian  boys  are  wrestling  and 
a  game  resembling  marbles  played  with  the  vertebrae 
of  sheep.  I  have  never  seen  a  Persian  boy  with  a  sled 
or  a  pair  of  skates.  All  the  boys  are  put  to  work  at  a 
tender  age,  if  not  in  school.  The  schools  are  kept  in 

the  mosques,  and  taught  by  mullahs.  The  boys  sit 

« 

on  the  matting  with  which  the  floor  is  covered,  or 
upon  rugs  which  they  bring.  They  learn  to  read  and 
write.  If  they  wish  to  learn  more  than  this,  they  must 
find  private  tutors.  Every  scholar  pays  a  small 
amount  every  week  to  the  teacher.  There  are  no 


XII.] 


PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE . 


271 


public  and  free  schools  in  the  land.  The  sons  of  rich 
men  are  taught  by  private  tutors.  They  aie  early 
trained  to  horsemanship,  and  find  their  spoit  in  riding 
and  hunting.  As  soon  as  they  have  some  knowledge 
of  reading  and  writing,  they  are  practised  in  the  busi¬ 
ness  of  their  father.  It  is  not  uncommon  that  a  boy 
thirteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age  should  act  as  judge, 
or  as  the  governor  of  a  province  or  city.  Every  car¬ 
penter,  mason,  tailor,  or  artisan  keeps  a  small  boy  with 
him  to  help  in  work,  and  to  serve  as  an  apprentice. 

The  little  girls  serve  in  the  house. 

Climate,  building  material,  and  the  social  life  of  the 
people,  have  given  form  and  arrangement  to  the  Per¬ 
sian  houses.  The  parcel  of  land  used  for  a  dwelling  is 
first  inclosed  by  a  high  wall,  so  that  no  one  can  see 
the  court  within.  Another  wall  is  constructed  parallel 
to  this  on  one  or  more  sides  of  the  court,  and  carried 
to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  if  the  house  be  one 
story  high.  The  space  between  the  two  walls  is  parti¬ 
tioned  off  into  as  many  rooms  as  desired.  The  doors 
and  windows  are  therefore  all  on  one  side  of  the 

rooms. 

The  palaces  of  the  rich  are  constructed  on  the  same 
general  plan.  Some  houses  are  built  in  the  centre  of 
a  court,  and  therefore  have  a  front  on  two  sides.  One 
peculiarity  of  a  Persian  house  is  the  division  into 
berune  and  andarune,  or  the  outer  and  the  inner  apart¬ 
ments.  The  latter  is  occupied  by  the  females,  and  is 
the  harem.  The  chief  outlay  in  the  way  of  ornament 


27  2 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xn. 


is  on  the  berune,  the  quarters  occupied  by  the  men. 
Yet  some  palaces  form  an  exception  to  this  statement. 
The  summer  palaces  of  the  wealthy  are  often  arranged 
with  great  care  and  taste.  They  may  be  poorly  built, 
but  they  present  an  extended  front  of  columns  and 
terraces,  or  fountains,  and  porches,  seen  through  long 
vistas  of  plane  and  poplar  trees.  A  rill  of  water,  one 
important  feature  of  a  garden  and  palace,  ripples  over 
a  pavement  of  brick  or  stone,  flowing  through  foun¬ 
tains  and  by  the  side  of  pavilions  from  terrace  to  ter¬ 
race,  and  down  broad  avenues  of  trees,  and  through 
flowery  paths.  To  such  retreats  the  Persian  has  given 
the  name  Ferdose,  and  Behisht,  that  is,  Heaven.  The 
fortunate  owner  of  such  a  place  finds  his  chief  solace 
in  resting  in  his  pavilion,  listening  to  the  murmur  of 
the  waters,  or  to  the  song  of  the  nightingale,  and 
breathing  an  air  laden  with  the  perfume  of  sweet 
flowers. 

The  Persians  of  all  ranks  take  great  pleasue  in  cul¬ 
tivating  flowers.  The  sides  of  the  fountains  are  usually 
set  with  pots  of  geraniums  and  roses.  The  gardens 
abound  in  tulips,  pansies,  snowballs,  and  roses  of  sev¬ 
eral  varieties.  The  tree  most  esteemed  for  shade  is 
the  chinar  or  plane.  In  its  height,  wide  spreading 
branches,  and  foliage,  it  resembles  the  elm.  It  is  of 
slow  and  sturdy  growth.  The  poplar  tree,  which  we 
call  the  Lombardy,  is  most  common,  and  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  roofs  of  dwellings.  The  walnut 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  and  the  apple 


XII.] 


MUSIC. 


273 


and  cherry  and  box  are  used  for  fancy  work  and  small 
articles. 

The  musical  instruments  of  the  country  are  chiefly 
stringed  instruments,  of  which  the  chief  is  the  tar, 
played  in  the  same  manner  as  the  guitar  of  Europeans. 
The  music  which  is  not  imported  is  no  more  than  a 
monotonous  repetition  of  a  few  minor  tones  ;  but  it  is 
admired  by  the  people.  The  singing  of  Europeans, 
when  first  heard  by  Persians,  is  not  so  favourably  re¬ 
ceived,  and  is  appreciated  only  as  the  people  are 
educated  to  it.  All  music  is  excluded  from  the  wor¬ 
ship  of  Mohammedans.  The  emotions  excited  by  it 
are  thought  to  be  incompatible  with  the  reverence  of 
true  worship.  The  intonation  of  the  service,  especi¬ 
ally  the  reading,  is  some  compensation  for  the  absence 
of  a  service  of  song.  The  better  class  of  people  give 
no  attention  to  vocal  or  instrumental  music.  The  art 
is  consigned  to  the  dervishes,  the  boys  and  the  Lutees, 
and  is  usually  considered  an  indication  of  low  social 
standing.  The  dancers  and  the  Lutees  are  the  princi¬ 
pal  musicians,  and  the  art  is  practised,  for  the  most 
part,  by  the  disreputable  classes.  In  the  capital  many 
of  the  customs  of  foreigners  have  been  introduced, 
and  the  cultivation  of  a  musical  taste  is  more  respect¬ 
able  than  in  the  rural  settlements.  In  the  King’s 
College  instruction  in  music  is  given,  and  some  Per¬ 
sians  drive  quite  a  business  in  renting  pianos. 


18 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


The  Government  of  Persia — Absolute  Authority  of  the  Shah — Officers 
of  the  Government — Army — Administration — Governors — Assess¬ 
ments — The  Sar  or  Capitation  Tax — The  Mill — The  Land  Tax — 
Begaree — Revenue — Tenure  of  Land- — Title  Deeds — The  Governor 
or  Hoykim — Sadr  Azam — Personal  Liberty  of  the  Ryot — The  Three 
Departments  of  Government — The  Oorf — The  Sharah — Appeal — 
Relations  of  the  Two  Courts — Mode  of  Trial — Punishments — Sanc¬ 
tuary — Where  afforded — Price  of  Blood — Imprisonment  for  Debt — 
Bankrupts — Resistance  to  the  Shah  and  Protection  by  Asylum — The 
Currency — Postal  System — Bribery — Slavery — Laws  Regulating  Mar¬ 
riage-Rights  of  the  Covenanted  or  Ahdah  and  of  the  Sekah — 
Part  performed  by  the  Mullah — Abject  state  of  the  Harij  or  Mutee 
Islam — Practice  in  Hamadan — Particular  Grievances  of  the  Mutee  or 
Alien  Subject — Rights  of  Foreigners  determined  by  Treaty. 

The  government  of  Persia  is  that  of  an  absolute 
monarchy.  The  Shah  is  the  supreme  ruler  of  the 
country,  and  possesses  all  the  lands  which  have  not 
been  occupied  by  patent  from  the  king.  His  absolute 
right  and  authority  is  expressed  in  many  high-sound¬ 
ing  titles  with  which  he  is  addressed  by  his  obsequious 
courtiers  and  subjects  ;  such  as,  Shah  in  Shah— “  King  , 
of  Kings ;  ”  Keblah  Alam, — the  Centre  of  the  World. 
Homayune, — The  Blessed.  He  only  has  the  power 
of  life  and  death,  and  for  the  execution  of  any  outlaw 

permission  must  first  be  obtained  from  the  sovereign. 

274 


XIII.] 


NAMES  OF  PERSIAN  OFFICIALS. 


275 


The  king,  at  will,  appoints  all  the  officers  of  his  gov¬ 
ernment.  These  are  the  heads  of  the  departments  of 
state,  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  and  the  officers 
of  the  army.  He  calls,  and  dismisses  at  pleasure,  some 
of  the  officers  of  the  state  to  constitute  an  advisory,  or 
privy  council.  These  men  consult  with  the  king  and 
propose  measures  for  the  public  good.  The  council, 
however,  is  not  permanent,  as  the  Shah  often  finds  it 
more  convenient  to  manage  affairs  independently.  The 
chief  officers  of  State  are :  the  Sadr  Azam,  or  Prime 
Minister ;  the  Sapar  Salar,  or  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  Army ; — for  there  is  no  navy; — Mustofeal  Mamalak, 
or  Secretary  of  the  State ;  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  ; 
the  Meyer,  or  Treasurer.  Below  these  in  rank,  there 
is  a  great  number  of  officers,  as  the  Minister  of  Science,, 
the  Minister  of  Justice,  and  Minister  of  Art  and  Pub¬ 
lic  Works.  Pompous  titles  are  freely  bestowed,  and 
there  is  a  large  number  of  princes  and  titled  persons 
who  may  or  may  not  bear  any  active  part  in  the 
management  of  affairs,  such  as;  Yameen  id  Doulat, 
the  Right  Hand  of  the  Kingdom;  Motamed  al  Doulat, 
the  Reliance  of  the  Kingdom ;  Zen  at  id  Doulat,  the 
Ornament  of  the  Kingdom ;  and  the  like,  of  which  I 
have  counted  eighty-three,  but  there  are  many  more 
than  these.  All  the  officers  of  the  State  receive  sala¬ 
ries,  but  depend  quite  as  much  upon  the  profits  of 
their  office  as  upon  the  allowance  from  the  crown. 
The  army  is  organized  on  the  European  plan. 

The  administration  of  government  is  very  simple. 


276  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [xm. 

The  governors  are  held  responsible  for  the  control  of 
the  provinces.  They  receive  appointments  from  the 
Shah  usually  on  giving  a  stipulated  sum  as  a  bonus. 
They  are  provided  with  a  ketabtche,  or  small  book, 
containing  regulations  for  the  management  of  the 
affairs  of  the  provinces.  The  Shah  requires  of  them 
the  collection  of  the  taxes  and  the  military  quota,  and 
the  administration  of  justice  in  the  provinces.  The 
taxes  are  supposed  to  be  collected  on  certain  assess¬ 
ments  made  by  the  order  of  the  crown.  It  is  the 
practice  of  the  king  at  his  option  to  send  two  or  more 
persons  to  a  province  for  the  purpose  of  taking  a 
record  of  the  taxable  property,  real  and  personal. 
This  assessment  is  seldom  made,  however,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  unpopular  and  often  unsatisfactory.  Old 
assessments  are  therefore  adhered  to  in  many  places. 
The  assessors  report  to  the  Mustofe  ai  Mamalak,  or 
secretary,  who  keeps,  in  Tehran,  a  record  of  the  as¬ 
sessments. 

A  certain  sum  is  demanded  annually  of  every  gov¬ 
ernor  ;  the  amount  being  determined  by  the  assess¬ 
ment.  Real  estate  is  taxed  only  when  improved.  The 
mode  of  collection  is  this  :  The  governor  demands 
the  tax  from  lands  subject  to  certain  cities  or  khanates. 
The  khans  and  landlords  demand  of  the  governors  of 
the  village  called  kathodas,  who  collect  of  the  people 
of  their  villages.  In  cities  the  kathodas  supervise 
the  affairs  of  the  mahal  or  wards.  The  tax-gatherers 
are  sent  out  by  the  governor,  and  they  frequently  ac- 


XIII.] 


PERSIAN  TAXES . 


277 


company  the  kathodas.  Sometimes  the  kathoda  is 
an  agent  of  the  landlord.  The  landlords  of  villages 
usually  collect  by  their  own  servants.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  taxes  :  The  sar,  or  capitation  tax  of  one 
toman,  is  levied  upon  all  males  capable  of  labour.  The 
question  of  competency  is  determined  by  the  elders 
of  the  village  in  which  the  man  or  child  lives.  It  is 
possible  that  in  their  judgment  he  may  be  half  a  man, 
and  so  obliged  to  pay  one-half  the  usual  head  tax. 
The  mall  tax  is  levied  on  all  personal  property.  The 
tax  on  a  cow  or  other  animal  of  the  herds  is  thirty 
shahees.  On  sheep  and  goats  the  tax  is  two  to  four 
shahees  per  head,  and  of  every  household  one  fowl 
and  ten  eggs  is  demanded.  Every  gardener  must  give 
to  the  meer  kazab,  or  executioner,  a  bundle  of  whips 
and  two  shahees  in  money.  The  land  tax  is  paid  by 
every  landowner.  It  is  two  karans  and  ten  shahees 
for  every  rhea  of  land.  This  is  the  land  tax  paid  to 
the  king.  The  tax  is  about  fifty  cents  on  one-fifth  of 
an  acre.  The  tax  begaree  is  levied  in  hunting  expe¬ 
ditions  of  the  king  and  princes.  It  means  the  quar¬ 
tering  of  men  upon  the  people  or  ryots.  In  these 
excursions  provender  and  food  is  taken  as  required, 
free  of  cost.  The  total  revenue  of  the  king  is  about 
seven  million  pounds  sterling.1  Besides  the  revenue 
of  the  State,  the  king  has  a  considerable  income  from 
the  estates  of  the  crown. 

1  The  amount  of  revenue  is  variously  stated  ;  the  estimate  depends,  in 
part,  on  the  value  put  upon  certain  products. 


278 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xm. 


The  tenure  of  land  is  regulated  by  the  religious 
code,  and  has  certain  well-established  principles.  It 
has  been  said  that  all  lands  may  be  reclaimed  at  the 
expiration  of  forty-nine  years.  By  others  the  limit 
has  been  set  at  ninety-nine  years ;  but  expedients  are 
devised  to  avoid  the  law.  Title  deeds  must  be  ac¬ 
knowledged  before  a  well-known  mujtaheed  or  mul¬ 
lah,  and  it  is  the  custom  that  he  keep  a  copy  of  the 
conveyance.  The  evidence  of  title  is  strengthened  by 
the  possession  of  all  the  conveyances  showing  the 
chain  of  title.  All  classes  of  people  may  purchase 
and  hold  realty,  without  restraint,  except  foreigners, 
who  may  purchase  subject  to  certain  restrictions  de¬ 
fined  by  the  treaties. 

Every  large  town  and  small  city  is  under  the  con¬ 
trol  of  a  hoykim,  or  governor  and  judge,  who  is  him¬ 
self  subject  to  the  governor  of  the  province.  It  is 
frequently  the  case  that  the  hoykim  acts  independently 
of  his  superior.  The  governors  of  the  cities  and  of 
the  small  districts  are  all  appointed  by  the  central 
government ;  but  these  officers  are  often  chosen  from 
the  owners  of  the  estates.  The  owner  of  estates  is 
always  recognized  as  the  ruler  of  his  own  ryots  or 
tenants,  subject  to  the  right  of  appeal.  The  kathoda, 
.  or  overseer  of  a  village,  is  usually  appointed  by  the 
landowner  on  request  of  the  tenants.  There  is  no 
uniformity  in  the  extent  of  authority  given  to  the 
governors.  One  of  the  sons  of  the  king  is  governor 
of  a  large  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  governors  rule 


XIII.] 


THE  LATE  SADR  AZAM. 


279 


by  their  own  caprice,  subject  to  the  order  of  the  king. 
It  is  seldom  that  they  consult  any  statutes  ;  but  there 
are  many  checks  upon  their  will,  besides  the  order  of 
the  Shah.  They  are  in  wholesome  fear  of  the  land- 
owners  and  princes,  who  may  have  estates  within  the 
province.  Although  the  king  has  this  absolute  power, 
yet  he  is  in  fear,  and  his  government  is  weak.  In 
time  of  extremity,  when  the  people  are  on  the  verge 
of  rebellion,  they  are  appeased,  and  he  justified,  by 
the  sacrifice  of  some  Minister  of  State.  He  has  good 
reason  to  fear  conspiracy,  for  it  is  often  easily  formed. 

The  Sadr  Azam  has  in  many  instances  been  the 
first  of  the  State  officers  to  feel  the  displeasure  of  the 
king  and  people.  The  late  Sadr  Azam  was  no  ex¬ 
ception  to  many  of  his  predecessors  in  this  particular. 
It  is  admitted  that  he  was  a  man  of  progressive  ideas, 
and  seems  to  have  desired  the  improvement  of  his 
country.  We  judge  of  his  public  acts,  and  do  not 
speak  of  his  private  character.  He  devised  many  im¬ 
provements.  It  was  through  his  influence  that  the 
Shah  undertook  the  journey  to  Europe — the  first  of 
the  shahs  of  Persia  to  visit  a  Christian  sovereign. 
But  the  Sadr  Azam  excited  the  hostility  of  the 
mullahs  and  the  envy  of  the  princes.  Soon  after  the 
Shah  and  court  had  left  Tehran,  a  combination  was 
formed  against  him.  One  of  the  king’s  wives  was 
conspicuously  associated  with  the  conspirators,  owing, 
it  is  said,  to  hatred  felt  by  this  woman  toward  the 
Sadr  Azam.  The  cause  of  her  dislike  is  reported  to 


28o 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xiii. 


have  been  the  fact  that  the  minister  persuaded  the 
Shah  that  it  was  inexpedient  that  this  lady  should 
accompany  His  Majesty  in  his  tour  through  Europe. 
On  the  return  of  His  Majesty  he  was  notified  on  land¬ 
ing  at  Anzile  that  he  must  dismiss  his  Prime  Minister. 
The  Shah  reluctantly  complied,  and  entered  Tehran 
without  him.  In  a  few  weeks  several  of  the  ring¬ 
leaders  of  the  faction  were  deprived  of  their  offices 
and  property,  and  others  became  compliant,  so  that 
the  Sadr  Azam  was  recalled,  and  appointed  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs.  In  1880  he  was  degraded  and 
sent  to  Mashhad  as  governor,  where,  in  1881,  he  died. 

The  personal  liberty  of  the  ryot  is  a  recognized 
fact  of  the  law.  The  landlord  cannot  hold  his  tenants 
except  under  contract,  and  for  debt  They  have  the 
liberty  to  remove  to  other  villages  and  to  become  ten¬ 
ants  of  other  landowners.  There  is  a  scarcity  of 
tenants.  This  is  a  notable  feature  of  the  years  imme¬ 
diately  succeeding  the  famine.  It  is,  I  judge,  a  fact 
at  all  times,  that  the  agriculturists  are  not  sufficiently 
numerous  to  meet  either  the  demands  of  capitalists,  if 
Persian  landowners  may  be  called  such,  or  the  natural 
capabilities  of  the  country  for  improvement.  There 
is  no  distinction  between  the  legislative,  judicial  and 
executive  departments  of  government.  The  king,  and 
the  landlords,  and  governors,  perform  in  their  several 
degrees  of  authority,  the  office  of  lawgiver  and 
judge.  The  secular  ruler  alone  constitutes  the  court 
called  the  oorf.  The  religious  orders  of  mullahs  are 


XIII.]  MINOR  OFFICIALS— MODE  OF  TRIAL.  281 

also  recognized  as  judges.  They  seem  not  to  hold  as 
much  power  as  in  former  years,  and  there  is  a  ten¬ 
dency  in  the  government  to  confine  the  mullahs 
strictly  to  religious  functions.  A  mujtaheed  or  mul¬ 
lah  is,  however,  now  very  commonly  recognized  both 
by  the  people  and  governors  as  a  proper  judge.  This 
court  is  called  sharah,  a  term  meaning  the  religious 
law.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  appeals  which  a 
complainant  may  make  from  one  judge  to  another. 
Yet  the  judges  themselves,  for  the  honour  of  their  own 
name  as  well  as  from  other  motives,  are  pretty  sure  to 
see  that  their  decisions  are  immediately  executed.  It 
often  happens  that  there  is  collision  between  the  sec¬ 
ular  and  the  religious  judge.  There  is,  however,  a 
mutual  fear  which  prevents  any  very  general  rupture 
of  the  ordinary  relations  of  the  two.  The  mujtaheeds 
usually  have  a  large  number  of  servants  and  adherents, 
who,  at  a  command,  execute  the  order  of  their  mas¬ 
ter.  A  mujtaheed  has  been  known  to  give  a  fitwa  for 
the  death  of  certain  persons.  But  usually  such  are 
extreme  cases,  and  the  method  pursued  is  not  that  of 
a  regular  judicial  hearing,  but  that  of  a  mob. 

The  mode  of  trial  is  very  simple  and  irregular.  If 
it  be  concerning  property,  the  investigation  is  more 
formal  and  protracted.  If  it  be  concerning  crime,  the 
process  is  more  summary.  The  judge  is  usually  seated 
in  a  large  room  and  near  a  very  large  window,  over¬ 
looking  the  court.  The  witnesses  are  called.  Only 
witnesses  on  one  side,  or  those  that  testify  to  having 


282 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xm. 


seen  the  act  Three  witnesses  are  sufficient  for  con¬ 
viction.  If  the  evidence  seem  clear  to  the  judge,  the 
executioner,  who  stands  near,  is  ordered  to  inflict  pun¬ 
ishment  at  once  in  the  court.  Whipping  is  usually 
done  in  the  court  of  the  governor’s  palace.  Torture 
is  sometimes  resorted  to.  Hot  copper  vessels  may  be 
held  just  above  the  head,  or  the  windows  allowed  to 
fall  on  the  fingers.  A  hand  or  an  ear  may  be  cut  off. 
The  latter  is  the  more  usual  penalty  for  theft.  Whip¬ 
ping  is  most  common  for  offences  of  a  less  aggravated 
nature.  In  case  of  whipping,  the  hands  of  the  man 
are  tied ;  he  is  thrown  upon  his  back,  and  his  feet  are 
tied,  and  drawn  up  by  a  pole  held  horizontally  by  two 
men,  so  that  the  soles  shall  be  exposed  to  the  blows. 
I  have  seen  permanent  arrangements  for  this  in  the 
court;  they  were  pointed  to  as  an  indication  of  the 
temper  of  the  hoykim.  The  former  arrangement  is, 
however,  the  common  one.  The  whips  used  are 
green  switches  or  sticks.  These  are  laid  on  to  the 
soles  and  ankles,  as  ordered  by  the  judge,  fifty  to  one 
thousand.  Criminals  condemned  to  death  are  some¬ 
times  reserved  in  all  the  provinces,  until  a  certain  day 
and  hour  determined  by  the  Shah.  At  the  given  time 
the  execution  must  take  place  in  all  the  cities. 

The  right  of  sanctuary  is  usually  conceded,  and  is, 
in  most  instances,  a  cover  of  crime.  The  place  of 
refuge  must  be  a  mosque.  In  criminal  cases  I  think 
it  is  invariably  a  shrine.  The  degree  of  security  af¬ 
forded  varies  with  the  sacredness  of  the  shrine,  and 


XIII.] 


PLACES  OF  REFUGE. 


283 


this  again  varies  with  the  rank  of  the  saint  interred 
within.  The  house  of  a  recognized  mullah  is  con¬ 
sidered  an  asylum  in  some  instances.  The  mosque 
of  a  village  is  an  asylum  for  some  offenders.  Whether 
it  be  such  or  not,  depends  upon  custom,  for  here  cus¬ 
tom  is  the  law.  I  have  referred  to  the  asylum  afforded 
by  the  shrine  of  Imam  Reza  in  Mashhad.  The  ar¬ 
rangements  here  are  on  an  extended  scale.  The 

o 

mosques  of  Shah  Abd  al  Azeem,  near  Tehran,  are  an 
asylum  to  which  many  have  fled.  I  personally  knew 
of  two  Armenians  having  a  disagreement ;  one  of 
them  deliberately  planned  to  kill  the  other,  and  shot 
him  in  his  own  house.  The  murderer  immediately 
fled  to  Shah  Abd  al  Azeem,  where  he  remained  until 
the  price  of  blood  had  been  discounted  to  the  lowest 
amount,  when  he  paid  the  price,  and  returned  to  his 
own  home.  If,  however,  the  murderer  does  not  escape 
to  an  asylum,  and  should  be  arrested,  the  judge  is 
quite  certain  to  ask  if  the  prosecution  will  accept  the 
price  of  blood;  and  it  is  usually  required  that  he 
shall  accept  it ;  but  if  the  murder  have  been  committed 
under  very  aggravating  circumstances  the  culprit  may 
be  strangled  or  beheaded  at  once.  The  price  of  blood 
is  very  cheap,  if  the  murdered  man  be  poor.  It  is 
quite  dear  if  he  be  rich.  It  has  been  fixed  as  low  as 
twenty  tomans,  and  as  high  as  a  thousand  tomans.  The 
rank  of  the  murdered  man  has  much  to  do  in  deter¬ 
mining  the  price.  It  is  so  great  with  some  persons 
that  no  amount  of  money  can  atone  for  taking  life. 


284 


I 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xm. 


Debtors  are  sometimes  imprisoned  until  payment  be 
made,  or  they  are  whipped.  To  shun  this  extremity 
they  may  escape  to  a  mosque,  and  on  assigning  what 
property  they  have  for  the  benefit  of  their  creditors 
receive  a  release  from  the  mullah.  But  this  practice 
is  less  common  now  than  formerly.  The  more  com¬ 
mon  practice  is  to  seize  all  the  property  of  a  debtor. 
If  he  has  none,  he  is  whipped  until  his  friends  are 
moved  to  pay  the  amount  required.  It  is  amazing 
how  much  bodily  pain  these  people  will  sometimes 
endure  to  avoid  the  loss  of  money,  or  shun  the  pay¬ 
ment  of  a  just  claim. 

The  Shah  is  said  to  have  ordered  that  sanctuary  in 
the  house  of  a  mullah  shall  not  be  recognized.  The 
governor  of  Khorasan  recently  took  a  debtor,  by  force, 
from  the  house  of  a  mullah  in  that  city.  In  1877  a 
prominent  mujtaheed  of  Koom  resisted  the  order  of 
the  Shah  to  increase  the  taxes.  He  was  the  leader  of 
a  combination  of  mullahs  who  excited  the  populace  to 
oppose  the  assessment.  When  the  Shah  sent  an  order 
for  his  arrest,  the  mujtaheed,  hearing  of  this,  caused 
some  of  the  officers  or  messengers  of  the  king  to  be 
beaten,  and  then  fled  to  Shah  Abd  al  Azeem,  where  he 
escaped  punishment.  The  usual  way  of  getting  hold 
of  those  who  thus  seek  to  cover  up  their  iniquity  is  to 
use  a  decoy  to  get  them  out  of  the  mosque. 

The  currency  is  regulated  by  the  order  of  the  Shah. 
No  paper  money  is  issued.  Shahees,  half  and  quarter 
shahees  are  the  only  coins  of  copper.  The  shahee 


XIII.] 


MONE  Y 


285 


has  the  value,  very  nearly,  of  one  cent.  The  silver 
coins  are,  the  karan,  half  karan,  and  five  shahees.  Re¬ 
cently  a  piece  of  the  value  of  two  karans  has  been 
issued.  The  karan  is  of  the  value  of  one  franc.  It  is 
so  called  from  the  name  of  a  cycle  of  thirty  years. 
When  a  prince  has  reigned  thirty  years,  it  is  customary 
for  him  to  issue  a  coin  commemorative  of  the  event. 
On  the  9th  of  July,  1877,  at  noon,  the  reigning  Shah 
ascended  his  throne,  in  state,  in  commemoration  of 
the  completion  of  one  cycle  since  his  coronation. 
New  karans  were  minted  in  honour  of  the  event.  There 
is  no  gold  coin  other  than  one  toman,  and  five  karan 
pieces.  In  former  years  the  coins  were  struck  by 
hand,  and  in  the  provincial  capitals.  Since  the  com¬ 
pletion  of  a  mint  near  Tehran,  provided  with  ma¬ 
chinery  brought  from  Europe,  the  issue  of  coins  in 
other  places  has  been  prohibited.  The  old  coins  were 
unalloyed,  although  it  should  be  said,  that  the  parties 
charged  with  the  mints  in  the  provinces  did  sometimes 
issue  a  debased  coin  alloyed  with  copper.  The  de¬ 
nominations  of  the  money  are  shahees,  karans,  and 
tomans ;  twenty  shahees  to  the  karan,  and  ten  karans 

to  the  toman. 

The  present  postal  system  was  organized  in  1875. 
Persia  was  admitted  to  the  Postal  Convention,  and 
mail  matter  was  carried  at  the  rates  determined  by  the 
Convention.  The  postal  service  was  begun  some 
years  previous  to  this,  but  was  discontinued.  A  con¬ 
tract  for  a  large  number  of  postage  stamps  was  made 


286 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xm. 


by  the  Shah’s  government  with  a  Persian,  who  was  to 
print  them  by  hand  from  dies  furnished  by  the  Shah. 
But  it  was  found  that  he  had  printed  more  than  a  hun¬ 
dred  thousand  for  his  own  benefit,  and  therefore  all 
the  stamps  were  destroyed.  This  is  but  one  sample 
of  the  numerous  expedients  adopted  for  filching  from 
the  king.  No  public  trust  seems  to  be  kept  for  a  long 
time.  The  public  works,  such  as  roads,  telegraphs, 
and  buildings,  come  to  ruin  in  the  course  of  a  few  years. 

One  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  deplorable  features 
of  Persian  government  is  the  system  of  bribery  called 
rishwa.  It  is  commonly  understood  that  every  decision 
of  a  judge,  whether  he  be  of  the  secular  or  of  the 
religious  rulers,  must  be  preceded  by  a  present. 
Whether  the  decision  be  favourable  or  unfavourable 
will  depend  upon  the  value  of  the  gift.  The  present 
is  called  a peesh-kash ,  that  is,  a  thing  which  leads  on,  or 
comes  before .  The  word  is  used  to  denote  that  the 
bribe  must  precede  the  decision  of  the  court.  The 
practice  is  prevalent  among  the  highest  officers  of  the 
king  as  well  as  among  the  most  degraded  of  the  peas¬ 
antry.  An  officer  of  the  crown  offered  to  decide  a 
certain  case  in  my  favour  on  condition  that  I  would 
give  him  one  hundred  tomans.  Yet  when  asked  if  he 
would  give  his  receipt,  very  promptly  declined.  A 
foreigner  desired  to  purchase  a  building;  under  the 
treaty  he  had  a  right  so  to  do ;  but  the  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  denied  the  right  of  the  parties  to  pur¬ 
chase  under  Persian  law ;  but  when  a  present  of  fifty 


XIII.] 


SLA  VER  Y. 


287 


tomans  was  presented  to  him  in  person,  he  promptly 
ordered  the  seal  of  the  government  to  be  attached  to 
the  conveyance.  The  Accountant  of  the  Kingdom 
offered  to  secure  the  remission  of  certain  taxes  levied 
on  the  Armenians  of  Hamadan,  on  condition  that  they 
o-ive  him  one  hundred  tomans  and  twelve  hundred 

fc> 

bottles  of  wine. 

The  system  of  slavery  is  regulated  by  the  religious 
law,  the  Koran  and  statutes  supposed  to  be  in  con¬ 
formity  with  it.  All  prisoners  of  war  and  non-Mo¬ 
hammedans  bought  with  money  may  be  held  as 
slaves.  At  this  time  white  slaves  are  rare,  except  the 
children  of  captives,  or  persons  made  captive  in  former 
years.  Many  Turkmans  may  be  seen  who  were  slaves. 
Some  of  the  Kurdish  tribes  sell  their  daughters.  It 
might  be  thought  that  this  sale  by  Kurds  is  intended 
to  be  a  form  of  marriage  only ;  but  the  fact  is  that 
the  girls  are  purchased. to  be  domestics.  Black  slaves 
are  the  more  numerous.  They  are  brought  from 
Arabia,  and  most  frequently  from  Mekkah.  They  are 
purchased  by  pilgrims,  and  are  negroes  of  Soudan  and 
of  the  regions  south  of  Soudan.  The  males  become 
eunuchs  of  the  harems,  and  the  females  are  employed 
as  domestics.  By  Mohammedan  law  the  female  slave 
is  freed  as  soon  as  she  becomes  a  mother.  Slave 
dealers  frequent  the  principal  cities,  and  buy  and  sell 
slaves ;  but  the  demand  is  not  so  great  as  to  support 
a  public  market.  Sometimes  parties  of  slaves  are 
brought  by  a  dealer  to  the  capital  or  other  city,  and 


288  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [xiii. 

the  unfortunate  blacks  are  kept  in  private  houses 
where  they  are  stripped  naked  and  inspected  by  pur¬ 
chasers. 

The  laws  regulating  marriage  and  polygamy  are 
dependent  upon  the  religious  faith  of  the  parties  con¬ 
tracting.  The  non-Mohammedan  races  are  permitted 
to  adhere  to  the  religious  laws  of  the  sect  to  which 
they  belong.  The  secular  authorities  recognize  the 
validity  of  marriage  celebrated  by  any  recognized 
officer  of  the  religious  sect  to  which  the  parties  ad¬ 
here.  Mohammedans  are  governed  by  Mohammedan 
law.  By  that  law  there  are  two  kinds  of  marriage. 
One  is  called  ahdah,  meaning  covenanted,  and  the  other 
is  termed  sekah,  or  contracted.  A  Mohammedan  may 
possess  four  of  the  first  class,  and  any  number  of  the 
second  class.  Wives  of  the  first  class  have  priority 
of  right,  and  their  children  inherit  the  property  of  the 
father.  But  all  married  women  agree  to  a  divorce,  on 
receipt  of  a  price  agreed  upon  in  the  time  of  mar¬ 
riage.  It  is  less  common  to  divorce  the  ahdah.  The 
sekah  wives  contract  for  a  limited  period  of  time. 
The  children  of  such  marriages  belong  to  the  father 
if  the  mother  be  put  away.  This  arrangement  of 
marriage  is  the  source  of  great  corruption.  The 
woman  often  passes  from  one  husband  to  another  in 
the  course  of  a  few  months.  The  law  provides  that 
there  shall  be  an  interval  between  the  marriages  of 
not  less  than  four  months ;  but  this  provision  is  made 
subject  to  the  option  of  the  prospective  husband.  The 


XIII.] 


MARRIAGE  CEREMONY, \ 


289 


nuptial  ceremonies  of  the  second  class  are  very  brief, 
and  consist  in  the  repetition  of  a  formula  by  a  mullah, 
which  sanctifies  the  transient  relation.  The  legal  part 
of  all  marriage  ceremonies  is  performed  by  the  mul¬ 
lah,  and  the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  contracting 
parties.  He  witnesses  the  agreement  between  the 
parents,  or  their  agents,  and  when  the  preliminaries 
have  been  duly  arranged  he  asks  the  bride  if  she 
agrees  to  the  marriage.  He  repeats  a  prayer  or  a  pas¬ 
sage  of  the  Koran.  The  maiden  is  in  the  harem.  The 
mullah  approaches  a  screen  or  curtain  which  separates 
the  males  and  females,  and  being  assured  of  the 
presence  of  the  bride,  asks  her  consent.  The  char¬ 
acter  and  extent  of  other  ceremonies  vary  with  the 
wealth  and  inclinations  of  the  parties  most  concerned. 

There  is  a  wide  distinction  made  between  Moham¬ 
medans  and  non-Mohammedans  in  their  relations  to 
the  government.  All  the  people  born  of  subjects  owe 
allegiance  to  the  Shah,  and  are  called  ryots.  The  term 
harij  is  applied  to  all  people  not  Mohammedans.  The 
word  means  an  alien.  The  same  term  is  used  to  denote  a 
foreigner.  The  Guebers,  Jews,  Armenians  and  Nesto- 
rians  are  called  harij.  The  relations  of  subjects  and 
harij  to  the  government  are  regulated  by  the  precepts 
of  the  Koran.  The  statutes  of  Omar  are  observed 
according  to  the  caprice  of  the  ruler. 

The  harij  or  aliens  have  rights  as  tributaries.  It 
was  a  precept  of  Mohammed  that  non-Mohammed¬ 
ans,  who  are  not  idolaters,  shall  be  allowed  to  enjoy 

19 


290 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


fxm. 

liberty  and  to  practise  their  own  religion,  provided 
they  do  not  aid  the  enemies  of  Islam,  and  provided 
they  pay  tribute.  In  all  legal  documents  to  which  an 
harij  is  party,  it  is  customary  to  designate  him  as 
mutee  Islam,  that  is,  one  subject  to  Islam.  I  have 
known  mullahs  decline  to  put  their  seal  to  contracts 
in  which  the  term  was  wanting.  The  mutee  Islam  is 
entitled  to  the  protection  of  life,  property  and  liberty 
of  worship  ;  but  this  liberty  must  not  be  exercised  in 
conflict  with  practices  of  the  Mohammedans.  The 
marriage  of  aliens  and  the  services  of  their  worship 
maybe  forbidden  on  Mohammedan  feast  and  fast  days. 
The  ringing  of  church  bells  and  the  erection  of 
church  spires  are  now  prohibited,  as  being  incom¬ 
patible  with  the  subject  state  of  tributaries.  In  former 
years  more  than  now,  the  harij  was  subjected  to  vio¬ 
lence.  This  was  not  sanctioned  by  law,  but  was  a 
natural  result  of  the  laws.  In  many  places  an  harij 
was  not  permitted  to  ride  a  horse  or  mule,  but  might 
ride  a  donkey.  In  some  places  he  dare  not  ride  any 
animal,  lest  he  should  be  pulled  off  the  beast  in  the 
street.  In  the  markets  he  must  not  touch  any  article 
of  food,  lest  it  should  be  defiled  by  his  touch.  In 
Hamadan  it  was  the  custom  during  many  years  for 
the  Mohammedan  governor  to  require  and  receive  of 
the  Armenians  a  present  in  money,  and  the  fairest 
maiden  of  the  Christian  colony. 

The  non-Mohammedan  sects  are  separate  dependen¬ 
cies  of  the  Persian  government,  paying  tribute,  but 


XIII.] 


RIGHTS  OF  SUBJECTS. 


291 


exempt  from  the  military  conscription.  The  particu¬ 
lar  grievances  under  which  they  labour,  and  which  are 
sanctioned  by  law,  are :  irregular  taxation,  exclusion 
from  participation  in  the  government,  rejection  of  their 
testimony  in  the  courts,  and  the  alienation  of  estates 
by  marriage  with  Mohammedans.  The  testimony  of 
a  non-Mohammedan  is  not  accepted  in  the  court  as 
against  a  Mohammedan.  If  a  Christian  or  Jew  be¬ 
comes  a  Mohammedan  he  may  claim  all  the  estates 
of  his  father,  even  though  there  be  other  natural 
heirs.  Claims  made  on  this  ground  are  common  oc¬ 
currences.  It  has  happened  that  a  Mohammedan  has 
married  a  Christian  woman,  and  by  virtue  of  such 
marriage,  has  claimed  the  property  of  her  father’s  es¬ 
tate  as  against  all  other  heirs. 

The  rights  of  the  subjects  of  all  other  governments 
in  Persia  are  determined  by  the  treaties.  It  is  usual 
to  concede  to  all  the  privileges  accorded  to  the  most 
favoured  by  treaty.  The  treaty  of  Turkman  Tchai  is 
used  as  a  precedent  as  to  the  rights  of  foreigners.  By 
the  terms  of  that  treaty,  they  are  entitled  to  protection ; 
and  persons  living  in  the  country  are  entitled  to  resi¬ 
dence  and  premises  necessary  for  the  carrying  on  of 
their  business.  There  is  no  treaty  provision  with 
reference  to  religious  liberty,  or  the  rights  of  for¬ 
eigners  acting  in  any  other  capacity  than  that  of  mer¬ 
chants  and  travellers,  although  the  same  rights  are 
inferred  to  belong  to  foreigners  who  may  not  be 
engaged  in  trade. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Religion  of  the  King  and  Ruling  Races— The  Athna  Asherain— Review 
of  the  Rise  of  the  Sect — Abu  Beker  and  the  three  first  Khalafahs — 
Ale  and  his  Assassination — Moaveyah —  The  Dynasty  of  the  Amme- 

yah _ Rise  of  the  Abasidees — Condition  of  the  House  of  Ale  during 

the  Reigns  of  the  Khalafahs— Princes  of  the  House  of  Buy  ah— 
Suljuks — Hassan  Saba  and  the  Assassins — Division  of  the  Countiy— — 
With  the  Ata  Begs — Mogul  Princes  and  their  Toleration — lhe 
Twelve  Imams  proclaimed  by  Khodaband— Tamouridees— Rise  of  the 
House  of  Ismael  or  the  Sufees — The  King  of  the  Sheahs  Supre¬ 
macy  of  the  Sect  of  the  Athna  Asherain— Distinguishing  Tenet  of  the 

^ect _ Doctrine  as  to  the  Mahde  or  the  Riser — The  Babees  Attempt 

to  Assassinate  the  Shah— Death  of  the  Conspirators— Ale  Allahees 

_ Curious  Rites  of— Sheikees  and  Mutasharahees— Sufees— Their 

Philosophical  System— Relation  of  the  Founder  of  the  Sufee  Dynasty 
to  the  Imams— Doctrinal  Development  of  the  Sect  oi  the  i  wtlve 
Religious  Literature  of  the  Twelve — The  Slieah  call  to  Prayer 
Divine  Nature  of  Ale  Claimed— Vicarious  Death — The  Sayeds — 
Superstitions  of  the  People — The  Most  Holy  Shrines  Celebrated 
Schools  of  the  Sect  of  the  Twelve — Principal  Ceremonies — llie 
Takeahs  and  the  Tazeahs — Public  Assemblies — Religions  Orders — 
Mullahs— Imam  Juma — Peesh  Namaz — Wais — Mujtabeed—  Reve¬ 
nues—  Dervishes—  Privileges  of  the  Sayeds— Honorary  Title*.  Con¬ 
ferred  on  Mullahs — Theological  Schools — Their  Support. 

The  religion  of  the  king  and  ruling  races  of  Persia  is 
that  of  the  Mohammedan  sect  called  Athna  Asherain,1 
or  the  Twelve.  It  is  a  subdivision  of  the  Sheah  sect. 

1  Pronounced  by  Persians  Asna,  also  written  Athna  Ashcra  and  Oshera. 

292 


XIV.] 


THE  ATHNA  A  SHE  RAIN. 


293 


The  essential  doctrines  and  ceremonies  of  the  Athna 
Asherain  cannot  be  understood  without  a  knowledge 
of  the  rise  and  fortunes  of  the  Sheahs.  Immediately 
after  the  death  of  Mohammed  there  arose  a  dissension 
among  his  four  most  intimate  friends,  as  to  who  should 
succeed  him  as  ruler  of  the  Moslems,  and  as  to  the 
principles  and  code  of  laws  by  which  they  should  be 
governed.  Ale,  the  son-in-law  and  cousin  of  Mo¬ 
hammed,  declared  for  the  hereditary  right,  and  claimed 
the  succession  on  the  ground  that  Fatimah  was  the 
only  surviving  child  of  the  prophet,  and  he  himself 
the  first  spiritual  child  of  Mohammed,  since  he  had 
been  first  in  Mekkah  to  embrace  the  new  religion. 
He  contended  that  the  Koran  should  be  the  code  of 
laws,  which,  however,  was  not  then  compiled.  Abu 
Beker,  Omar  and  Othman  claimed  that  the  succession 
should  be  elective,  and  the  Khalafah  should  rule  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  the  Koran  and  the  traditional  sayings 
of  Mohammed.  Later  it  was  claimed  that  the  rulings 
of  the  first  Khalafahs  should  be  followed  as  precedents, 
or  a  code  of  laws.  The  controversy  was  summarily 
decided  by  Omar,  who  declared  for  Abu  Beker,  and 
caused  the  election  by  the  congregation. 

From  this  time  onward  the  ranks  of  Islam  were 
divided,  but  the  government  remained  in  the  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  advocates  of  the  elective  right.  When  the 
three  adherents  of  this  principle  had  each  served  as 
Khalafah,  and  had  been  removed  by  poison  or  assassi¬ 
nation,  Ale  was  chosen.  His  election  was  the  signal 


294 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xiv. 


for  rebellion  by  the  military  ruler  of  Syria,  Moaveyah1 
of  the  house  of  Ammeyah.  The  assassination  of  Ale 
and  the  dissensions  of  the  Moslems  left  Moaveyah 
master  of  the  field,  and  the  succession  remained  in  the 
house  of  Ammeyah  for  a  period  of  about  a  hundred 
years,  and  until  this  dynasty  was  overthrown  by  the 
successful  conspiracy  in  favour  of  the  house  of  Abas. 
The  Abasidees  ruled  over  all  the  Moslems  of  Asia  until 
the  reign  of  the  Suljuk  Turks,  a.  h.  418. 

During  all  this  period  the  heirs  and  descendants  of 
the  house  of  Ale  were  distinguished  in  all  countries  as 
Sayeds.  Numerous  aspirants  for  the  khalafate  sprang 
up  among  them,  but  they  were  invariably  defeated  by 
the  forces  of  the  reigning  Khalafahs,  and  the  represen¬ 
tatives  of  this  house,  who  became  conspicuous  for 
sanctity,  learning,  and  popular  esteem,  were  uniformly 
put  out  of  the  way  by  poison.  The  house  of  Ale, 
however,  steadily  gained  Adherents  among  the  Per¬ 
sians,  and  opponents  of  the  Arab  control,  and  some 
of  the  rulers  of  the  provinces  openly  favoured  the  pre¬ 
tensions  of  the  Sayeds.  The  princes  of  the  line  of 
.  Buyah,  who  began  to  rule  in  Fars  and  Irak,  A.  H.  392, 
though  tributary  to  the  Abasidees,  favoured  the  Sheahs, 
and  Asad  al  Doulat  restored  the  buildings  at  Najaf 
over  the  grave  of  Ale.  The  last  of  this  dynasty  died 
a.  h.  448.  The  princes  of  Ghaznah  were  Sunees.  They 
ceased  to  rule  a.h.  583*  The  Suljuk'Turks  began  to 

1  This  name, — as  quite  every  other  proper  name, — is  written  in  differ¬ 
ent  ways  by  Persian  writers,  and  in  several  ways  by  the  same  author. 


XIV.] 


THE  ASSASSINS. 


295 


reign  in  Persia  a.  h.  416.  About  this  time  Togrul  Beg 
and  his  army  embraced  the  religion  of  the  Koran. 
He  overthrew  the  dynasty  of  Buyah,  conquered  Per¬ 
sia,  and  took  the  capital  of  the  Abasidees,  Bagdad. 
He  practised  the  religion  of  the  Sunee  Mohammedans. 
In  the  reign  of  his  grand-son  Malek  Shah,  a.  h.  485, 
the  famous  assassin  Hassan,  Saba,  A.  h.  483,  established 
the  sect  of  the  Ismaelites.  They  were  so  named  from 
Ismael  the  son  of  Imam  Jafir.  The  so-called  “  Old 
Man  of  the  Mountain,”  Hassan,  was  the  first  of  the 
Sheahs  to  head  a  successful  revolt,  and  to  establish  a 
dynasty  of  the  Aleites  in  Persia. 

The  Suljuk  dynasty  ceased  in  a.h.  636,  and  Persia 
was  divided  between  the  sway  of  the  Assassins  and  the 
Ata  Beg  princes  until  the  fall  of  the  several  branches 
of  the  latter.  The  Assassins  ruled,  especially  in  North¬ 
ern  Persia,  for  a  period  of  a  hundred  and  sixty  years, 
and  until  they  were  exterminated  by  Huluku  Khan, 
a.d.  1253.  The  Mogul  princes  were  Theists,and  toler¬ 
ated  both  Islam  and  Christianity.  Of  this  line,  Abaka 
and  Argun  were  Christians,  but  Khodaband,  the  son 
of  the  latter,  caused  the  oration  of  Friday,  delivered  in 
the  mosques,  to  be  proclaimed  in  the  name  of  the 
twelve  Imams,  throughout  the  kingdom.  The  Mogul 
dynasty  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Tamour,  which  con¬ 
tinued  from  a.d.  1387  to  1447,  and  was  followed  by  a 
reign  of  anarchy  while  the  princes  of  the  various 
Turkish  tribes  contended  for  supremacy.  In  a.d. 
1468,  Sultan  Hassan  Beg,  after  subduing  a  rival  clan, 


296 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xiv. 


became  ruler.  He  married  Despina,  a  daughter  of 
Kalo-Johannes,  emperor  of  Trebizond.  A  daughter 
by  this  marriage  named  Martha  became  the  wife  of 
Sultan  Haidar,  a  descendant  of  the  seventh  Imam.  A 
son  of  Haidar  and  Martha  named  Ismael  established 
an  independent  government  at  Ardabil  during  the 
years  of  anarchy.  His  arms  were  successful,  and  in 
A.  d.  1499  he  was  proclaimed  Shahe  Sheahan,  or  king 
of  the  Sheahs.  He  obtained  possession  of  all  Persia, 
and  founded  the  house  of  the  Sufee 1  dynasty  and 
with  it  the  sect  of  the  Sheahs,  called  the  sect  of 
the  Twelve  Imams,  which  has  remained  until  the 
present  time  the  prevalent  religion  of  the  princes  and 
people  of  Persia.  The  essential  and  distinguishing 
tenet  of  this  sect  is  that  by  the  command  of  Mo¬ 
hammed,  the  right  to  supreme  spiritual  and  secular 
rule  was  possessed  by  the  eldest  living  representative 
of  Ale,  until  and  including  the  twelfth  generation. 
These  representatives  are  believed  to  have  been  Ale, 
Hassan,  Hosein,  Ale  called  Zain  al  Abadeen,  Bakir, 
Jafir,  Mosa,  Reza,  Takke,  Ale,  Plassan  [Askare]  and 
Mohammed,  called  al  Mahde.  The  last  when  a 
child,  and  while  pursued  by  the  executioners  of  the 
Abasidee  Khalafah,  disappeared  in  a  well  in  the  court 
of  his  paternal  home.  He  did  not  die,  but  remains 
concealed.  He  is  to  make  two  revelations  of  him¬ 
self.  He  is  the  true  Mahde,  who,  when  he  shall 
appear,  will  be  entitled  to  absolute  rule  over  the 

1  Written  also  Sufevee,  Sufeveah.  and  Sefavee  by  Persian  writers. 


XIV. ] 


THE  BABEES. 


297 


world.  He  is  therefore  called  kaim  or  the  riser,  and 
Lord  of  the  Time. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Mahde  has  given  abundant  oc¬ 
casion  for  the  pretensions  of  impostors.  Many  have 
appeared  claiming  to  be  the  Mahde.  The  most  con¬ 
spicuous  of  these  in  modern  times  is  one  known  as 
the  Bab,  and  who  has  given  rise  to  the  sect  known  as 
the  Babees  in  Persia.  This  sect  originated  with  one 
called  Mirza  Ale  Mohammed,  the  son  of  a  merchant 
of  Shiraz,  where  he  was  born  in  1819.  He  manifested 
strong  religious  proclivities  in  early  manhood  ;  studied 
at  the  schools  of  Najaff  for  a  time,  and  followed  the 
life  of  a  dervish.  The  Arabic  word  bab  means  a  door, 
gate  and  way.  He  first  professed  to  be  the  door  to 
the  Mahde,  in  the  sense  of  a  forerunner,  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  coming  of  that  Imam.  It  is  asserted  by 
Persian  writers  that  he  gradually  abandoned  this  as¬ 
sumption,  and  professed  to  be  the  Mahde  himself,  and 
after  a  time,  he  set  up  the  bold  claim  of  being  an  in¬ 
carnation  of  the  Supreme  God.  Whatever  in  fact  his 
own  doctrines  as  to  his  own  nature  may  have  been, 
the  last  claim  is  that  which  is  now  adopted  by  the 
Babees  of  Persia.  His  adherents  were  flushed  with 
the  success  of  the  new  pretension,  and  asserted  the 
right  of  the  Bab  to  temporal  rule.  If  this  were 
denied,  yet  it  must  be  a  natural  result  of  their  tenets, 
judging  by  an  examination  of  their  books  and  by 
conversations  had  with  teachers  of  this  sect,  I  under¬ 
stand  that  their  chief  tenet  relates  to  the  doctrine  of 


298 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xiv. 


the  Divine  manifestations.  They  hold  the  unity  of 
these  in  all  ages.  The  Divine  person  was  in  Moses, 
Christ  and  Mohammed  and  is  now  in  the  Bab.  Birth 
and  death  is  the  law  of  human  life,  therefore,  every 
incarnation  of  Deity  is  in  accord  with  this  law. 
Hence  the  Bab  is  born  and  must  die  to  human  appear¬ 
ance.  They  hold  that  God  must  at  all  times  be  in 
the  world.  He  has  always  been  present  in  a  bodily 
form.  The  natural  death  of  the  body  is  only  the  step 
or  means  to  another  manifestation  by  means  of  another 
body.  In  all  that  these  religionists  set  up  there  is 
apparently  an  absurd  collection  of  contradictory  tenets, 
and  the  real  claims  for  the  Bab  are  obscured  by  high- 
sounding  words  and  unintelligible  sentences. 

The  doctrine  which  appealed  to  the  people  and 
made  adherents  was  simply  this  one  of  the  Mahde, 
and  the  investment  of  the  Mahde  with  Divine  prerog¬ 
atives.  In  the  imagination  of  all  who  accepted  him, 
the  visible  kingdom  of  God  had  come,  and  brought 
with  it  the  right  of  all  Babees  to  inherit  the  world. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Babees  is  adapted  to  the  doctrine 
of  Divine  manifestation  as  held  by  all  religions.  The 
books  of  this  sect  are  made  up  of  quotations  from  the 
New  Testament  and  from  the  Koran.  Yet  there  is 
great  diversity  of  doctrine  among  the  Babees  them¬ 
selves.  They  are  one  of  the  most  numerous  sects  in 
Persia,  and  their  tenets  have  found  many  advocates  in 
quite  all  the  countries  of  Asia.  The  assumption  of 
the  Babees  alarmed  the  mullahs  and  the  government. 


XIV.] 


THE  BABEES. 


299 


Active  measures  were  devised  to  suppress  the  sect 
The  Babees  took  up  arms  in  defense,  and  assumed  the 
aggressive.  Ale  Mohammed  was,  after  long  impiison- 
ment,  given  the  form  of  trial  in  Tabriz,  and  being  con¬ 
demned,  was  publicly  shot  in  that  city.  The  public 
executioners  and  Persian  soldiers  objected  to  taking 
any  part  in  the  execution  owing  to  the  assumed  sacied 
character  of  the  Bab,  but  the  order  was  executed  by  a 
number  of  soldiers,  in  the  public  square  of  Tabriz. 
The  Babees  were  engaged  in  many  places  with  the 
government  troops.  I  have  related  their  conduct 
in  Zengan.  In  the  province  of  Mazandaran  they 
made  a  fierce  resistance  for  some  months.  The  affair 
at  Zengan  occurred  in  1851.  In  the  following  year  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  for  the  assassination  of  the 
Shah.  It  is  the  custom  of  the  Persian  king  to  permit 
the  presentation  of  petitions  to  himself  in  the  street. 
As  the  Shah  was  riding  near  the  summer  palace  Nea- 
varan,  he  was  met  by  four  men,  one  of  whom  was 
permitted  to  approach  the  Shah.  The  assassin  at¬ 
tempted  to  seize  the  king,  for  the  puipose,  doubtless, 
of  dragging  him  from  his  horse ;  but  failing  in  this, 
he  fired  a  pistol,  the  shot  of  which  inflicted  a  slight 
wound  in  the  thigh  of  the  king.  The  conspirators 
were  seized  and  put  to  death.  There  followed  a  gen¬ 
eral  persecution  of  the  sect,  and  until  the  present 
time  the  profession  or  proof  of  the  Babee  faith  has 
been  considered  cause  sufficient  for  the  infliction  of 
the  penalty  of  death. 


3°° 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[XIV. 


Mirza  Hosein  Ale,  of  the  province  of  Mazandaran, 
and  for  a  time  a  resident  of  Tehran,  was  an  agent  or 
vakiel  of  the  Bab  at  the  time  of  the  death  of  that 
man  in  Tabriz.  He  escaped  from  Tehran,  but  was 
arrested  in  Constantinople,  and  during  several  years 
has  been  confined  at  Akka,  in  Syria.  He  professed  to 
be  the  Bab,  and  is  very  generally  recognized  by  all 
who  now  hold  to  the  tenets  of  that  sect  in  Persia.  In 
this  fortress  he  receives  the  contributions  of  the  faith¬ 
ful,  professes  to  work  a  miracle  in  proof  of  his  divin¬ 
ity  by  writing  a  thousand  letters  in  an  incredible  short 
space  of  time,  and  sends  his  decrees  to  kings  and  peo¬ 
ple  in  many  places. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  sects  of  the  Persian 
Sheahs  is  the  Ale  Allahees.  They  contend  that  as 
the  name  denotes,  Ale,  the  husband  of  Fatimah,  is 
God.  The  more  moderate  of  them  claim,  however, 
no  more  than  the  possession  by  Ale  of  the  Divine 
nature.  The  Ale  Allahees  are  believed,  however,  not 
to  be  a  sect  of  purely  Mohammedan  origin,  but  they 
appear  to  hold  mysterious  rites  and  tenets,  which  seem 
to  refer  their  origin  to  a  heathen  source.  It  is  not 
apparent  that  they  have  any  clearly  defined  system  of 
religious  faith.  The  only  tenet  which  appears  to  be 
held  with  distinctness  is  that  of  the  divine  nature  and 
right  of  Ale.  Their  curious  dance  around  the  fire 
would  seem  to  indicate  some  connection  with  fire 
worship,  but  it  may  be  accounted  for  as  being  no  more 
than  a  social  custom. 


XIV.] 


THE  SUPERS. 


301 


Two  prominent  sects  are  the  Sheikees  and  the 
Mutasharahees.  The  former  name  is  derived  from  a 
celebrated  Sheik  who  taught  in  Kerman.  He  repre¬ 
sents  the  authority  of  reason  in  addition  to,  or  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to,  revelation.  His  principles  are  believed  to  be 
atheistic  in  their  tendency.  The  Mutasharahees  repre¬ 
sent  the  adherents  to  the  law  or  letter  of  the  Koran, 
as  the  perfect  and  absolute  rule  of  faith  and  conduct. 

The  Sheah  sect,  which  has  been  most  widely  influ¬ 
ential  in  Persia,  is  that  of  the  Sufees.  It.  gained 
ascendency  with  Ismael,  the  founder  of  the  Sufevean 
dynasty.  The  sect  is  known  by  its  religious  alliance 
and  religious  tenets,  but  rests  in  fact  upon  a  philo¬ 
sophical  system,  and  yet  retains  enough  of  the  ancient 
philosophy  to  indicate  its  origin  in  the  sect  of  the 
Sophists.  The  system  begins  with  an  acknowledg¬ 
ment  of  religions  and  manifestation  of  God,  but  ends 
with  a  denial  of  his  personality.  It  is  quite  impossi¬ 
ble  to  find  any  clearly  denned  system  of  philosophy 
or  theology,  which  all  the  so-called  Sufees  will  accept ; 
but  it  is  conceded  that  the  essential  doctrine  as  known 
at  the  present  day  is  the  supremacy  of  reason.  The 
sect  is  known  more  by  the  absence  of  any  clear  sys¬ 
tem  of  doctrine  than  by  the  possession  of  one,  and 
has  found  favour  with  the  public  chiefly  through 
the  political  acts  and  power  of  its  principal  adherents. 

The  sect  of  the  Twelve  Imams  was  brought  to  su¬ 
preme  power  in  Persia  by  virtue  of  the  blood  relation¬ 
ship  of  the  founder  of  the  Sufee  dynasty  to  the  Imams, 


302 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xiv. 


and  the  evident  ambition  of  that  prince  to  found  a 
national  religion.  The  doctrinal  development  of  the 
sect  of  the  Twelve  is,  however,  to  be  referred  to  an 
earlier  date  than  the  rise  of  the  Sufeveans.  It  is  a 
gradual  growth  out  of  the  history  and  traditions  of 
the  early  days  of  Islam. 

Persians  affirm  that  Hajah  Nasir  id  Deen,  of  Tus, 
was  the  first  person  who  collected  the  religious  tradi¬ 
tions  of  the  Sheahs.  He  lived  in  the  reign  of  Huluku 
Khan.  It  is  said  that  he  was  incited  to  compose  his 
books  by  his  dislike  of  the  Assassins.  Hassan  Saba 
lived  one  hundred  and  sixty  years  before  the  work  of 
Nasir  was  composed.  He  had  evidently  considered 
the  question  of  the  succession  when  as  yet  no  such 
system  as  that  of  the  Twelve  had  been  matured.  Pie 
declared  for  Ismael,  the  son  of  Jafir,  three  hundred 
and  forty-seven  years  after  the  death  of  that  Imam. 
Nasir’s  work  is  virtually  a  compendium  of  the  tradi¬ 
tions  and  history  of  the  Imams.  Pie  advocates  the 
succession  of  the  Twelve,  and  his  book  forms  the 
written  authority  most  commonly  consulted.  There 
has  been  a  continuous  growth  of  literature  relating  to 
the  Twelve  Imams,  and  the  authorship  of  a  few  books 
now  extant  has  been  referred  to  them. 

The  religious  literature  of  the  Persians  consists 
chiefly  of  works  treating  of  theology  and  the  ceremo¬ 
nies  of  worship,  of  orations  and  poems  celebrating 
the  virtues  of  the  first  Imams,  and  books  of  traditions. 
They  have  also  many  histories  and  treatises  upon  rhet- 


XIV,] 


MOHAMMEDAN  THE OLOGY 


3  °3 


oric  and  philosophy.  The  doctrine  of  the  divine  right 
of  Ale,  and  his  eleven  successors  forms  the  principal 
ground  of  the  doctrinal  and  ceremonial  differences 
between  the  Sheahs  and  the  Sunees.  This  has  caused 
the  addition  to  the  confession  of  faith  declared  in  the 
azon  or  call  to  prayer :  there  is  no  God  but  God,  Moham¬ 
med  is  the  prophet  of  God  and  Ale  is  the  agent  [vakiel\ 
of  God.  The  term  vakiel  used  in  this  confession,  appears 
to  mean  vicegerent,  or  one  acting  with  full  powers 
for  another.  The  Imams  therefore  in  this  creed  were 
deemed  infallible  popes.  This  supreme  authority  rests 
now  with  the  Mahde  and,  fortunately  for  the  world, 
cannot  lawfully  be  claimed  by  any  other  person.  The 
high  position  given  to  Ale  and  the  first  three  Imams 
has  driven  many  of  the  people  nigh  to  idolatry.  The 
orthodox  Sheahs  deny  the  participation  of  Ale  in  the 
divine  nature,  and  say  that  he  was  human,  but  invested 
with  high  spiritual  prerogatives.  These  powers  are 
such  as  to  offer  an  analogy  to  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  atonement.  The  death  of  Ale  or  of  Hosein  is  vi¬ 
carious  say  they,  to  all  who  believe  in  them,  and  Mo¬ 
hammed  and  his  successors  are  all  sufficient  mediators. 
Yet  this  claim  is  set  up  only  as  an  answer  to  Chris¬ 
tians  who  argue  the  need  of  an  atonement.  The 
doctrine  of  a  vicarious  death  does  not  form  any  part 
of  Mohammedan  theology  and  faith. 

The  numerous  progeny  of  Ale  are  honoured  with 
the  title  of  Sayed,  and  distinguished  by  the  green 
turban  from  all  other  men.  In  the  course  of  centuries 


304 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xiv. 


the  sayeds  have  furnished  many  martyrs ;  for  all  who 
have  died  by  the  hand  of  the  enemies  of  the  succes¬ 
sion  have  been  honoured  with  the  title  of  Shahid  or 
martyr.  The  tombs  of  these  witnesses  are  conspicu¬ 
ous  objects  upon  hill  and  mountain  side,  and  in  many 
villages  of  the  plains  and  valleys.  The  graves  are 
covered  with  a  tower  of  brick-work,  or  with  a  mosque. 
The  roof  of  these  is  usually  a  dome  of  enameled 
tiling.  These  sacred  places  are  shrines  whither  the 
people  of  the  village  and  surrounding  country  resort, 
and  whence  they  think  a  stock  of  merit  is  derived  by 
the  Zearat.  This  rite  consists  in  going  around  the 
tomb,  and  kissing  the  brick  or  iron  covering,  while 
repeating  prayers  and  passages  of  the  Koran.  These 
shrines  are  thought  by  the  superstitious  people  to 
possess  miraculous  powers,  and  a  bit  of  paper  or  a 
handkerchief  which  has  been  consecrated  by  contact 
with  the  tomb  is  believed  to  possess  the  power  of  heal¬ 
ing  diseases,  or  of  forecasting  the  future.  Quite  every 
shrine  has  its  traditions  of  wonderful  events  brought 
about  by  the  sacred  remains  interred  within.  The 
most  holy  shrines  of  the  Athna  Asherain  are  the  tombs 
of  Hosein  at  Karbalah,  of  Ale  at  Najaf,  of  Imam 
Reza  in  Khorasan,  and  Fatimah  the  sister  of  Reza  in 
Koom.  Multitudes  of  pilgrims  resort  to  these  places. 
Mekkah  and  Madenah  are  the  most  holy  shrines  com¬ 
mon  to  both  Sunees  and  Sheahs.  The  most  cele¬ 
brated  schools  of  the  Sheahs  are  at  Najaf  and  Kar¬ 
balah.  Extensive  and  costly  buildings  have  been. 


XIV.] 


SHEAR  CEREMONIES. 


305 


erected  in  these  places,  and  Sheah  youth  from  every 
quarter  resort  hither. 

The  most  popular  and  distinguished  ceremonies  of 
the  Sheahs  are  those  designed  to  commemorate  the 
death  of  the  third  Imam  Hosein.  Ale  was  slain  by 
an  assassin  in  the  mosque  of  Kufah  near  Najaf. 
Hassan,  the  eldest  son  of  Ale  and  Fatimah,  was  pois¬ 
oned  at  Madenah,  and  Hosein  with  seventy-two  ad¬ 
herents,  while  on  his  way  from  Madenah  to  Kufah,  was 
attacked,  by  the  order  of  the  Khalafah  of  Damascus, 
and  he  and  his  male  attendants  were  slain  at  Karbalah 
on  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  Moharam.  The 
bodies  of  the  Imam  and  his  comrades  were  trampled 
under  the  feet  of  the  enemies’  horses,  and  after  the 
decapitation  of  the  leaders  were  interred  where  they 
fell.  The  place  of  burial  was  early  the  resort  of  the 
friends  of  the  house  of  Ale,  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage 
and  wailing.  The  month  of  Moharam  has  been  set 
apart  by  the  Sheahs  as  a  season  of  mourning.  Trained 
bands  of  men  march  through  the  streets  on  the  days 
of  this  month,  beating  their  breasts  in  unison  with  the 
repetition  of  the  names  of  Hassan  and  Hosein.  They 
carry  a  standard,  having  on  the  top  a  hand  pointing 
upward.  Small  children  sometimes  march  with  these 
men,  shouting  the  names  of  Hassan  and  Hosein.  But 
the  beating  the  breast  is  attended  with  danger,  and  the 
slapping  of  the  hands  together  may  disable  the  men 
so  that  the  performance  could  not  be  continued  for  a 
long  time;  therefore,  blocks  of  wood  are  carried  in 


20 


3°6 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xiv. 


the  hands,  and  struck  together  as  a  substitute  for 
smiting  the  hands  and  breast. 

Theatrical  representations  of  the  tragic  events  in  the 
lives  of  the  Imams,  are  performed,  and  pathetic  stories 
are  read  to  crowds  of  people  assembled  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  commemorating  these  events.  Extensive 
buildings  are  constructed,  called  Takeahs,  for  these 
performances.  On  the  tenth  day,  called  Katie,  or  the 
murder,  bands  of  men  march  through  the  streets,  with 
head  and  feet  bare,  and  their  bodies  covered  with 
white  sheets,  and  carrying,  each  one,  a  cimeter  with 
which  he  strikes  his  head,  causing  the  blood  to  run 
down  upon  the  face  and  over  the  white  cloth  with 
which  he  is  covered.  It  sometimes  happens  that  one 
or  more  of  these  men  fall  in  the  street  from  loss  of 
blood;  and  some  have  been  known  to  cleave  their 
own  heads  with  a  single  stroke  of  the  cimeter,  in  a 
moment  of  frenzy.  It  should  be  said  that  the  mullahs 
profess  to  disapprove  of  these  exhibitions,  yet  many 
of  them  are  present  in  the  Takeah,  and  some  are  most 
actively  engaged  in  supervising  arrangements  for  the 
public  demonstrations.  The  people  continue  in  these 
assemblies  during  the  day,  and  until  a  late  hour  of  the 
night.  Food  is  provided  for  the  crowd  by  the  patron 
of  the  Takeah.  The  provision  consists  of  large  quan¬ 
tities  of  boiled  rice. 

The  religious  orders  of  the  Sheahs,  are  in  the  main 
the  same  as  those  of  other  Mohammedan  sects.  The 
several  grades  of  the  religious  orders  are  compre- 


XIV.] 


SHEA  HS — REL IGIO  US  ORDERS. 


307 


hended  under  the  one  term  Mullah.  The  word  means 
a  learned  person.  He  who  would  be  a  first-class  mul¬ 
lah  must  spend  many  years  in  acquiring  an  education. 
This  purpose  is  accomplished  by  attending  the  lectures 
of  some  eminent  teacher  of  Najaf  or  Karbalah.  No 
other  regulations  are  to  be  complied  with,  and  no 
license  is  to  be  obtained,  and  no  ordination  required. 
Any  one  who  so  chooses  may  be  a  mullah.  Whether 
a  man  is  qualified  or  not  is  to  be  determined  by  the 
people,  and  his  popularity.  The  fact  that  a  person  has 
given  himself  to  the  sacred  office  secures  no  right  or 
title  to  anything  except  to  an  allowance  from  the  rev¬ 
enues  of  the  school  where  he  may  be  studying.  The 
young  mullah  or  candidate  for  the  office  may  wear 
the  white  turban  at  his  pleasure.  When  the  customary 
course  of  study  has  been  completed,  even  then  the 
mullah  may  find  no  mosque  in  which  to  officiate.  He 
must  therefore  make  a  living  by  some  secular  pursuit. 
If  he  is  the  friend  of  a  prince  or  a  rich  man,  his  patron 
may  obtain  for  him  the  control  of  a  mosque,  or  a  pro¬ 
fessorship  in  a  college.  If  he  presides  over  a  mosque, 
he  is  called  an  imam  junta.  If  the  owner  of  a 
mosque,  or  if  a  congregation  appoint  him  to  lead  the 
devotions,  he  is  called  a  peesh  namaz.  If  he  devotes 
his  whole  time  to  preaching  he  is  called  a  wais.  If 
the  people  esteem  him  as  one  very  wise,  and  resort  to 
him  to  act  as  a  judge  in  their  disputes,  he  is  called  a 
mujtaheed ,  the  most  honourable  distinction  which  can 
be  secured.  If  he  be  employed  in  any  one  of  these 


308 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[xiv. 


capacities  he  receives  a  stipend  from  the  revenues  of 
the  mosque.  These  revenues  are  made  up  of  the 
tenths  given  for  the  poor,  and  the  fifths  given  for  the 
support  of  the  religious  orders.  In  addition  to  these 
there  are  endowments  and  voluntary  contributions. 

As  the  mullah  comes  to  his  office  without  any 
regular  law  to  which  he  must  conform,  so  he  may  lay 
aside  the  functions  of  his  office  at  pleasure.  Some 
mullahs  attain  to  great  celebrity  for  learning  and 
piety.  Some  become  very  rich.  The  greater  number, 
however,  are  poor,  and  disappointed  with  the  world 
and  their  callings.  The  sleek,  fortunate  and  well-fed 
are  contented,  and  are  the  pillars  of  the  faith.  Some 
of  these  men  are  noted  preachers,  and  draw  large 
crowds  to  hear,  in  the  mosques,  where  for  a  season 
they  may  preach.  The  mullah  may  officiate  at  funerals 
and  at  marriage  solemnities.  At  the  former,  he  reads 
or  recites  passages  from  the  Koran,  and  may  deliver 
a  eulogy  on  the  character  of  the  deceased  if  he  be 
desired  so  to  do.  He  may  lead  the  funeral  proces¬ 
sion  to  the  place  of  burial.  These  men  are  by  no 
means  so  rude  as  the  low  grade  of  the  civilization  of 
the  country  might  reasonably  lead  one  to  think  them 
to  be.  The  more  successful  among  them  manifest 
great  care  in  their  persons,  dress  and  manners.  In  all 
places  and  with  all  ranks  of  the  people,  they  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  for  superior  knowledge. 

The  dervishes  are  religious  tramps.  They  form 
societies  similar  to  the  monastic  orders  of  the  Romish 


XIV.] 


SHEAHS— RELIGIOUS  ORDERS. 


3°9 


Church.  The  members  of  the  different  orders  are 
distinguished  by  peculiarities  of  dress  and  manner. 
Some  of  the  dervishes  are  men  of  learning  and  of 
good  social  standing.  Others  of  them  are  persons  of 
filthy  appearance,  having  the  hair  very  long  and  wear¬ 
ing  tattered  garments.  Men  of  this  class  frequent  the 
public  places,  where  they  recite  passages  from  the 
poets  to  the  people  gathered  in  the  bazaars  and  mai- 
dons.  They  usually  carry  a  large  shell  or  basket  in 
which  to  receive  contributions  in  money,  and  bear  a 
curious  club  and  hatchet.  Most  dervishes  are  eaters 
of  opium,  and  given  to  the  use  of  hasheesh  and  arak. 
They  ostensibly  lead  lives  of  self-sacrifice.  They  pro¬ 
fess  to  have  forsaken  the  world,  but  that  renunciation 
consists  in  wearing  rude  garments,  and  avoiding  the 
pursuits  of  other  men.  This  life  of  idleness  is  sancti¬ 
fied  by  the  notion  that  religious  merit  is  obtained  by 
it ;  yet  some  of  the  dervishes  are  learned  men,  and 
some  have  been  noted  poets. 

The  term  sayed  is  given  to  all  the  posterity  of  Ale 
and  Fatimah.  The  name,  however,  does  not  carry 
any  title  to  office.  The  term  rosa  khan  denotes  the 
readers  of  pathetic  poems  and  eulogies.  The  call  for 
readers  at  the  Takeahs,  and  places  of  mourning  for 
the  Imams,  has  given  rise  to  an  order  of  persons  who 
devote  themselves  to  this  occupation. 

Honorary  titles  are  given  by  the  Shah  and  princes 
to  personal  favourites  among  the  religious  orders  and 
to  popular  speakers.  The  term  Sadr  al  Olama  denotes 


3IQ 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xiv. 


“  the  first  of  the  mullahs.”  Nezom  al  Olama  is  “  one  who 
governs  the  orders  of  the  mullahs.”  Sadr  al  Wakoff 
is  “one  set  as  the  chief  over  the  bequests.”  Sultan  al 
Zakiren  is  “  the  king  of  the  readers.”  Bulbule  Zakiren 
is  “the  nightingale  of  the  readers.”  These  titles  convey 
no  rights,  and  are  multiplied  according  to  the  fancy 
and  will  of  the  king  and  princes.  Schools  for  the  in¬ 
struction  of  young  men  in  the  usual  studies  of  a  theo¬ 
logical  course  are  connected  with  one  or  more  mosques 
in  every  considerable  city.  In  some  cases  these  schools 
are  liberally  endowed  by  legacies.  The  teachers  of 
such  schools  are  appointed  by  the  owner  or  patron  of 
the  mosque.  The  teachers  depend  upon  the  influence 
of  their  names,  or  of  the  patronage  they  can  offer,  to 
attract  pupils  to  the  school.  A  public  teacher  is  ex¬ 
pected  to  establish  a  reputation  for  learning.  To  do 
so  he  must  obtain  scholars.  It  is  usual,  therefore,  for 
the  teacher  to  provide  means  for  the  support  of  all 
who  prosecute  the  study  of  theology  with  him.  In 
most  cases  both  teachers  and  students  depend  upon 
the  revenues  of  the  mosque. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


Remnants  of  Captive  Races,  or  the  Non-Mohammedan  Sects  of  Persia 
The  Guebers — Zardosht  or  Zoroaster — Earliest  Condition  of  Zoro¬ 
astrianism — Number  of  the  Guebers — Chief  Tenets — Toners  of  Si¬ 
lence _ Public  Worship — Future  Punishment — Morals — Virtues — The 

Jews  of  Persia — Number — Religious  Affinities — Corruption  of  Religion 
and  Language — Disreputable  Pursuits — The  Armenians — Number — 
Origin — Skeptics — Antiquity  of  the  Armenian  Race — The  Ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  Rule — Introduction  of  Christianity  to  the  Countiy — Gregory — 
Ecclesiastical  System — Separation  from  the  Catholic  Church — Inven¬ 
tion  of  Letters  and  Translation  of  the  Scriptures — Orders  of  the 
Clergy — Ordination  and  Marriage  of  the  Clergy — Doctrinal  System — 
Feast  and  Fast  Days — Marriage — Armenian  Colonies — The  Captives 
of  1603 — Passage  of  the  Aras — Settlements — Priests — Influence  of 
Armenians — Distinguishing  Features  of  the  Race. 

The  masses  of  the  people  of  Persia  are  of  the  sect  of 
the  Twelve  Imams.  But  there  are  remnants  of  captive 
races  which  represent  other  religions.  For  convenience 
of  designation  these  may  be  called  non-Mohammedan. 
They  are  the  Fire-worshippers,  the  Jews,  the  Nestorians 
and  the  Armenians.  A  few  Georgians  are  dispersed 
among  the  Mohammedans;  but  the  number  is  too 
insignificant  to  justify  any  further  notice  of  them  than 
has  been  taken  in  previous  pages.  All  these  remnants 
of  ancient  people  are  supposed  to  number  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty  thousand  souls. 


311 


312 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xv. 


The  Guebers  are  commonly  known  to  Europeans 
and  Americans  by  the  name  Fire-worshippers.  The 
Mohammedans  call  them  Atashparast,  which  is  a 
literal  translation  of  the  term  adopted  by  Europeans. 
They  also  apply  to  them  the  name  Gueber.  The 
people  of  this  sect  call  themselves  Zardoshteon,  which 
means  the  adherents  of  Zoroaster,  who  by  his  disciples 
is  called  Zardosht.  In  India  they  are  known  as  Par- 
sees.  Originally  this  term  was  used  to  denote  Per¬ 
sians,  but  it  is  now  applied  to  fire-worshippers,  and 
Persians  of  the  Mohammedan  sect  are  designated  by 
other  words.  The  Guebers  discard  the  term  fire- 
worshippers,  and  deny  that  they  give  any  worship  to 
that  element.  The  origin  of  the  religion  of  the  Gue¬ 
bers  is  referred  to  Zardosht.  It  is  not  known  in  what 
period  he  lived.  His  adherents  claim  great  antiquity 
for  his  books,  but  they  are  dependent  upon  European 
scholars  for  whatever  definite  opinions  they  may  ob¬ 
tain  on  the  subject.  They  naturally  incline  to  the 
opinion  which  assigns  the  greatest  antiquity  to  their 
religion. 

It  has  been  thought  that  there  were  two  distinguished 
persons  having  the  name  Zardosht.  Persian  writers 
refer  the  birth  of  one  person  of  that  name  to  several 
cities.  It  is,  however,  commonly  believed  that  he  was 
born  in  either  the  city  which  occupied  the  site  of  Ra 
or  that  which  stood  where  Oroomiah  is  now  located. 

It  is  conjectured  that,  at  the  first,  the  Zoroastrian 
faith  was  a  pure  Theism — that  there  was  a  corruption 


XV.] 


THE  G  UEBERS — BELIEFS. 


313 


of  that  faith  by  contact  with  Magianism,  and  that  there 
was  a  reform  under  the  lead  of  a  second.  Zoroaster. 
The  representatives  of  this  system  of  religion  in  Per¬ 
sia  do  not  number  more  than  four  or  five  thousand 
souls.  The  greater  part  of  these  are  settled  in  and 
near  the  city  of  Yezd,  in  the  desert  of  Khorasan.  A 
thousand  are  said  to  be  in  Kerman.  A  few  merchants 
and  labourers  reside  in  Tehran,  Kashan  and  Ispahan. 
Those  living  in  Yezd  are  occupied  with  agriculture 
and  manufactures.  They  are  distinguished  from  other 
Persians  by  some  peculiarities  of  costume,  but  es¬ 
pecially  by  speech,  social  customs,  and  religious  wor¬ 
ship,  and  that  bearing  and  manner  which  appear  to 
be  the  result  of  their  peculiar  faith. 

It  should  not  be  thought  that  the  Guebers  have  any 
very  clearly  defined  ideas  of  religious  belief,  except  of 
the  most  general  nature.  Their  separation  from  other 
people,  and  their  preservation,  is  due  to  adherence  to 
a  few  traditions  and  ceremonies.  They  are  the  most 
exclusive  people  in  Persia,  and  are  looked  upon  by 
the  average  Persian  with  somewhat  of  superstitious 
fear,  as  if  they  were  capable  of  exerting  a  baneful  in¬ 
fluence  by  mysterious  rites.  They  believe  in  the 
existence  of  one  supreme  God ;  the  existence  of  an 
evil  principle  ;  the  immortality  of  the  soul ;  the  merit 
of  good  works,  and  have  a  reverential  regard,  amount¬ 
ing  to  worship,  for  the  four  elements.  The  conception 
of  the  supreme  Deity  as  now  expressed  by  the  Zoro- 
astrians  is  affected  by  the  Mohammedan  and  Christian 


3H  THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS.  [xv. 

assertion  of  the  divine  nature.  They  appear  to  agree 
with  the  Mohammedan  and  Christian  in  the  belief  in 
the  existence  of  an  Evil  Spirit.  The  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  body  is  unknown,  and  if  suggested, 
is  denied,  except  so  far  as  it  may  be  confounded  with 
the  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  souls.  The  most 
conspicuous  feature  of  the  creed  of  the  Guebers  is  the 
reverence  of  the  earth,  air,  fire  and  water.  This 
might  be  thought  to  be  a  remnant  of  a  worship  of 
the  elements.  The  fact  has  given  rise  to  two  remark¬ 
able  practices  :  The  adoration  of  the  sacred  fire  and 
the  exposure  of  the  dead.  They  deny  that  the  fire  is, 
in  any  true  sense,  considered  by  them  an  object  of 
worship.  They  compare  their  use  of  it  in  worship  to 
the  use  of  the  cross  in  Christian  assemblies,  and  say 
that  they  hold  it  to  be  a  symbol  only,  and  the  most 
appropriate  representation  or  emblem  of  the  divine 
nature. 

The  reverence  for  the  elements  is  again  expressed 
in  the  construction  of  towers  for  the  final  disposal  of 
their  dead.  The  object  sought  in  these  structures  is 
to  shun,  so  far  as  possible,  contaminating  earth  and 
air  and  water.  The  towers  are,  in  all  places,  con¬ 
structed  on  one  plan.  That  near  Tehran  is  a  fair 
sample  of  structures  of  its  kind.  It  is  built  on  a  crag 
of  a  mountain  overlooking  the  plain  of  Tehran,  and 
is  about  six  miles  distant  from  that  city,  and  is  near 
the  ruins  of  Ra.  The  exterior  is  a  round  wall  about 
twenty  feet  high,  covered  with  a  white  plaster.  The 


XV.] 


THE  GUEBERS—MODE  OF  BURIAL. 


3l5 


interior  is  constructed  with  a  floor  of  masonry,  about 
six  feet  below  the  top  of  the  wall.  This  upper  section 
of  wall  serves  as  a  parapet.  The  floor  is  made  with 
niches  in  the  mason-work  large  enough  to  hold  a 
body,  and  about  one  foot  deep.  In  these  the  dead 
bodies  are  placed,  so  that  the  face  of  the  dead  shall  be 
toward  the  north.  In  the  centre  of  the  pavement  is 
an  opening  or  pit.  The  niches  are  made  in  rows 
about  the  pit  When  the  flesh  has  been  plucked  by 
the  vultures,  the  bones  are  burned  in  the  niches,  and 
whatever  remains  is  thrown  into  the  pit.  It  happens 
here,  as  in  many  other  things,  that  the  theory  is  not 
entirely  practicable.  The  birds  do  not  eat  all  the 
flesh.  There  is  therefore  much  left  to  be  disposed  of 
by  human  device.  The  cremation,  for  some  leason,  is 
imperfectly  done.  In  fact  there  is  no  adequate  arrange¬ 
ment  for  so  difficult  a  task.  The  result  is  that  the 
central  pit  presents  a  mass  of  human  bones  and  flesh. 
The  climate,  however,  is  such  as  to  mitigate  the  evil. 
The  intense  sunlight  and  heat  of  summer  brings  every 
lifeless  body  to  the  dryness  of  a  mummy,  or  pulver¬ 
izes  it  to  dust. 

Public  worship  by  the  Guebers  cannot  be  held 
without  a  feast.  These  assemblies  are  very  rarely 
held.  The  bestowal  of  the  girdle  is  the  formal  act  of 
consecration.  The  Gueber  professes  to  believe  in  a 
place  of  future  punishment,  and  he  teaches  that  good 
deeds  will  be  rewarded.  He  holds  that  no  atonement 
is  necessary  and  that  God  will  pardon  sin  as  the  reward 


316 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xv. 


of  repentance.  There  is  no  great  difference  between 
the  Gucbers  and  other  Orientals  in  morals.  It  has  been 
said  that  they  are  more  truthful  than  others ;  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  said  by  persons  best  acquainted  with 
them,  that  chastity  is  but  lightly  esteemed  among 
them.  It  is  possible  that  their  seclusion  and  numer¬ 
ical  weakness  may  tend  to  the  cultivation  of  the  virtues 
of  industry  and  economy  in  an  unusual  degree. 

The  Jews  of  Persia  are  dispersed  in  many  villages 
and  cities.  By  statistics  gathered  in  time  of  the  great 
famine,  there  weie  found  to  be  in  all  the  kingdom  about 
fifty  thousand  Jews.1  They  refer  their  settlement  in 
that  country  to  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
They  differ  in  no  essentials  of  religious  faith  and  wor¬ 
ship  from  their  co-religionists  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  The  Hebrew  scriptures  are  carefully  preserved 
and  taught  in  the  schools.  The  Jews  of  Persia  have 
much  to  do  with  the  people  in  Bagdad,  and  they 
acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  chief  rabbi  in 
Jerusalem. 

The  dispersion  of  this  people,  continued  through  so 
many  centuries,  has  caused  them  to  adopt  some  Mo¬ 
hammedan  customs,  and  has  resulted  in  a  loss  of  the 
Hebrew  as  a  spoken  language.  A  few  of  this  people 
speak  the  language  of  the  sacred  books,  but  the  most 
part  of  them  use  a  jargon  composed  of  Persian  and 
Hebrew  words.  Yet  all  speak  the  Persian,  and  some 

1  In  1873  Ae  Jewish  taxpayers  represented  3480  families,  living  in 
forty-three  cities. 


xv.]  THE  ARMENIANS— NUMBER.  317 

are  good  readers  and  writers.  They  are  all  poly¬ 
gamists,  either  in  theory  or  fact,  and  the  law  of 
divorce  is  essentially  that  of  the  Mohammedans.  In 
every  place  the  Jews  follow  the  most  disreputable 
pursuits.  The  Falgeer  Khanah,  or  house  of  incanta¬ 
tion  and  fortune-telling,  is  common  with  them,  and  is 
frequented  chiefly  by  Mohammedans.  As  the  use  of 
wine  and  arak  by  a  Mohammedan  is  attended  with 
danger  of  detection  and  punishment,  the  Jews  estab¬ 
lish  in  their  own  quarters  houses  for  drinking,  where 
Mohammedans  and  Jews  secretly  indulge  in  drink 
and  revelry.  The  largest  settlements  of  Jews  are  in 
Tehran,  Hamadan  and  Ispahan. 

The  Armenians  number  in  Persia  about  thirty  or 
thirty-five  thousand  souls.  With  a  few  exceptions 
they  are  remnants  of  the  captive  colonies  brought  from 
Armenia  by  the  kings  of  Persia.  It  is  quite  impossible 
to  understand  the  religious  faith  and  the  spirit  of  the 
Armenians,  without  a  fair  knowledge  of  their  history, 
for  their  religion  is  more  distinctly  national  than  that 
of  any  other  people  of  antiquity  now  existing  in  any 
considerable  numbers,  and  the  religious  faith  owes 
somewhat  of  its  perpetuity  to  the  national  feeling. 
Many  of  the  Armenians  are  skeptics,  yet  they  conform 
to  the  observances  of  the  church  as  being  in  their 
opinion  essential  to  the  preservation  of  the  Armenian 
race,  language  and  customs.  Considering  this  people 
as  a  part  of  the  population  of  Persia,  I  shall  be  justified 
in  giving  a  brief  account  of  their  history  and  religion. 


318 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xv. 


The  great  antiquity  of  the  Armenian  race  is  con¬ 
ceded.  Their  history  begins  with  that  of  the  first 
races  inhabiting  the  countries  of  Western  Asia.  The 
regions  about  Mount  Ararat  were  the  first  possessions 
of  this  people,  and  have  contained  their  most  noted 
cities,  Artashat,  Tigranakert,  Erwandakert,  Valarsha- 
pat,  Ane,  Duin,  and  Etchmiadzin.  Armenian  writers 
claim  that  the  race  sprung  from  Togarmah,  the  son 
of  Gomar,  grandson  of  Noah.  Aram,  the  fifth  king, 
gave  his  name  to  the  people  and  the  country.  The 
first  dynasty  continued  for  a  period  of  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  seventy-nine  years,  and  covered 
the  era  of  the  greatest  prosperity  of  the  nation.  In 
the  year  b.  c.  328,  the  country  fell  under  the  power 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  was  governed  by  the 
Selucidse  until  b.  c.  149,  when  the  nation  came  under 
the  control  of  the  Parthian  dynasty.  The  Parthians 
ruled  the  land  during  five  hundred  and  eighty  years, 
or  to  A.  d.  428.  In  these  years  the  possession  of 
the  country  was  often  disputed  by  the  Romans. 
The  fall  of  the  Parthian  power  in  Persia  preceded  the 
overthrow  of  the  Arsacidse  in  Armenia  by  near  two 
hundred  years.  The  Sassanian  succeeded  the  Parthian 
kings  in  Persia,  and  made  frequent  incursions  upon 
Armenia.  The  Armenians  were  forced  to  contend 
with  Rome,  and  with  the  Greek  Empire.  The  Persian 
power  finally  prevailed,  and  extinguished  the  Arsa- 
cidae,  A.  d.  428. 

Armenia  was  then  ruled  by  Armenian  prefects,  who 


XV.] 


THE  ARMENIANS— RULERS. 


319 


were  appointed  by  the  foreign  kings  who  happened 
to  obtain  possession  of  the  country.  The  land  was 
frequently  overrun  by  Romans,  Greeks  and  Moham¬ 
medans  until  a.  d.  885.  From  this  period  until  A.  d. 
1079  Armenia  was  ruled  by  the  prefects  known  as  the 
Bagratian  nobles,  who  were  tributary  to  the  Khalafahs 
of  Bagdad.  This  rule  was  succeeded  by  the  Rubinian 
princes,  who  established  themselves  in  Cilicia,  while 
the  country  to  the  east  was  ruled  by  the  Tartar  and 
Turkish  hordes.  The  last  of  this  line  of  princes,  Leo 
VI.,  was  taken  prisoner  a.  d.  1375,  and  Cilicia  fell  under 
the  power  of  Sultan  Ashraf,  of  Egypt,  and  passed 
from  the  control  of  the  sultans  of  Egypt  to  the  Otto¬ 
man  Turks.  After  the  extinction  of  the  Armenian 
political  power  their  history  as  a  distinct  people  fol¬ 
lows  the  succession  of  the  pontiffs  of  the  Armenian 
Church. 

Tradition  refers  the  introduction  of  Christianity  to 
Armenia,  to  the  conversion  of  King  Abgarus,  one  of 
the  Parthian  princes,  and  to  the  preaching  of  the 
apostles  Thaddseus  and  Bartholomew.  It  is  conceded 
by  Gibbon,  that  Armenia  “  was  the  first  nation  which 
embraced  Christianity/'  We  have  no  reliable  means 
of  ascertaining  the  progress  of  Christianity  in  that 
country  during  the  first  two  hundred  years  after  Christ. 
Definite  history  begins  with  Gregory  the  Illuminator. 
He  is  called  the  restorer  of  Christianity  in  Armenia. 

By  his  influence  King  Tiridates,  and  the  whole  na¬ 
tion  were  led  to  embrace  the  Christian  religion,  and 


320 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xv. 


this  has  been  the  national  faith  ever  since.  Gregory 
was  the  first  catholikos  or  pontiff  of  the  Armenian 
Church.  The  pontificate  remained  in  his  family  until 
A.  D.  440.  The  pontificate  of  Etchmiadzin  has  been 
in  time  past,  as  now,  the  first  in  importance. 

The  ecclesiastical  government  of  the  Armenians  is 

Episcopal.  The  separation  of  this  from  the  Catholic, 

or  general  church,  occurred  as  early  as  a.  d.  366. 

Arsaces  the  Second  assembled  a  council  in  which 

Nierses  was  constituted  the  Supreme  Catholikos  of  the 

-  » 

Armenians.  The  object  of  the  king  and  princes  was 
to  separate  from  the  sea  of  Caesarea,  to  which,  since 
the  time  of  Gregory,  the  Armenian  pontiffs  had  been 
subject.  The  canons  of  the  new  national  church  were 
determined  by  councils  composed  of  the  clergy  and 
princes.  Soon  after  the  formation  of  the  national 
church,  the  Armenian  alphabet  was  formed  by  the 
monk  Mesrop,  A.  d.  406.  A  few  years  later  the  entire 
scriptures  were  translated  into  the  language  of  Armenia, 
and  led  to  the  disuse  of  versions  in  foreign  tongues. 

The  orders  of  the  clergy  in  the  Armenian  Church 
are  seven  ;  by  some  they  are  said  to  be  nine.  Arme¬ 
nian  writers  say  seven  corresponding  to  the  seven  sac¬ 
raments.  Beginning  with  the  lowest  in  rank,  they  are, 
doorkeepers,  readers,  exorcists,  candlelighters,  half 
deacons,  deacons  and  priests.  The  seventh  order  is 
subdivided  and  includes  four  higher  offices,  namely, 
bishop,  archbishop,  patriarch,  and  catholikos.  The 
higher  offices  must  be  filled  by  promotion  from  the 


XV.] 


THE  ARMENIANS— CLERGY. 


321 


lower.  Every  church  should  have  three  secular 
agents,  two  of  whom  must  be  laymen,  and  the  third  a 
priest.  All  members  of  the  four  lower  orders  may 
marry,  but  celibacy  is  required  in  the  remaining  three 
orders.  Marriage  does  not  prevent  promotion  to  the 
priesthood,  provided  it  took  place  before  the  time  of 
election  to  the  priesthood.  No  priest  can  marry  after 
he  has  been  ordained  to  the  priestly  office.  Second 
marriage  is  therefore  prohibited  to  a  priest.  The  first 
four  orders  are  set  apart  by  prayer  only.  The  imposi¬ 
tion  of  hands  is  lawful  in  the  ordination  of  the  three 
higher  orders.  The  catholikos  is  chosen  by  the  synod. 
The  synod  is  composed  of  the  agent  of  the  secular 
government,  now  Russian,  the  archbishops,  princes 
and  governors,  and  the  bishops  attached  to  the  ponti¬ 
ficate  of  Etchmiadzin.  The  patriarchs  are  now  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  catholikos.  The  lower  offices  in  every 
church  are  filled  by  election  by  the  congregation.  All 
officers  of  the  church  are  supported  by  contributions 
and  have  no  stipend.  The  officers  in  a  church  are 
chosen  to  serve  during  life,  except  the  priest,  who  may 
continue  for  a  specified  time.  The  term  of  service  may 
be  stated  by  the  archbishop  at  the  time  of  installation. 

The  doctrinal  system  of  the  Armenians  is  not  clear, 
either  to  priest  or  people.  They  have  no  standards  of 
faith,  unless  the  ritual  can  be  called  such.  The  theo¬ 
logical  treatises  of  Nierses  are  considered  good  au¬ 
thority.  The  doctrine  most  conspicuously  set  forth 
by  the  Armenian  Church,  besides  the  principal  tenets 


21 


322 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS . 


[xv. 


held  by  all  Christians,  is  that  “  Christ  was  perfect  God 
and  perfect  man,  with  spirit,  will  and  flesh,  one  body 
and  one  person  and  one  nature.”  They  hold  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  immaculate  conception,  and  to  regen¬ 
eration  in  baptism.  The  bread  and  wine  of  the  sacra¬ 
ment  of  the  Lord’s  Supper  they  believe  to  be  the  real 
body  and  blood  of  Christ.  I  have  not  been  able  to 
find  any  Armenians  of  intelligence  who  hold  to  a 
mystical  union  of  Christ  with  the  elements  after  recep¬ 
tion  by  the  communicant,  as  has  been  said  to  be  the 
belief  of  Armenians. 

The  Armenians  agree  with  Papists  in  holding  to  seven 
sacraments.  They  believe  that  Christ’s  death  atones 
for  original  sin,  and  that  actual  transgressions  are 
atoned  for  by  penance  and  the  sacraments.  Yet  this 
conception  is  not  clear  with  many,  and  there  are  those 
among  them  who  say  that  Christ’s  sacrifice  atones  for 
all  sins,  but  that  it  becomes  efficacious  only  to  such 
as  comply  with  the  ordinances  of  the  church.  They 
reject  the  doctrine  of  purgatory,  and  practise  auricular 
confession.  They  believe  in  the  intercession  of  saints. 
Christmas  is  observed  by  them  on  the  anniversary  of 
Christ’s  baptism.  The  baptism  of  infants  is  required, 
and  immersion  and  pouring  are  both  used  in  the  same 
rite. 

Feast  and  fast  days  are  very  numerous,  and  religious 
rites  are  freely  mixed  with  social  customs.  The  Scrip¬ 
tures  are  greatly  revered,  although  few  Armenians  of 
the  rural  districts,  can  read.  Marriage  occurs  early  in 


XV,] 


323 


THE  ARMENIANS— MARRIAGE. 

life,  usually  when  the  female  is  twelve  years  of  age, 
rarely  later  than  the  fifteenth  year.  The  ceremony  is 
invariably  performed  by  a  priest,  and  is  preceded,  in 
most  cases,  a  year,  by  a  betrothal.  The  ceremony  ob¬ 
served  at  the  betrothal  is  held  to  be  quite  as  binding 
as  that  of  marriage.  In  the  marriage  service  there 
occurs  the  curious  promise  made  by  the  bridegroom 
that  he  will  rule  the  woman. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Armenian  settlements  in 
Persia  were  colonies  of  captives  or  offshoots  of  colo¬ 
nies  of  captives.  About  a. d.  1583  the  Turks  con¬ 
quered  all  Armenia  as  far  as  to  the  city  of  Tabriz. 
Being  greatly  persecuted  and  oppressed  by  the  Turks, 
many  Armenians  fled  to  foreign  lands.  It  is  said  that 
those  living  in  “ Arzakh,  Uti,  Shamokhy,  and  Ganza  took 
refuge  in  Persia,  and  were  allotted  habitations  by  Shah 
Abas  in  the  city  of  Ispahan.”  Here  they  established 
a  large  and  flourishing  colony,  for  we  find  that  soon 
after  this  the  Armenian  pontiffs  resorted  to  Ispahan  to 
obtain  funds  for  the  payment  of  the  debts  of  the  pon¬ 
tificate. 

In  a.  d.  1603,  Shah  Abas  led  an  army  into  north¬ 
eastern  Armenia  and  drove  the  Turks  out  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  Two  years  later  the  Turks  assembled  a  large 
force  with  the  purpose  of  retaking  the  country  from 
the  Persians.  The  Shah  being  convinced  that  he 
could  not  hold  the  possession,  or  prefering  what  seemed 
to  be  a  more  profitable  expedient  than  battle,  deter¬ 
mined  to  devastate  the  land,  and  to  transport  the  in- 


324 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xv. 


habitants  to  Persia,  before  the  Turks  could  concentrate 
their  forces.  The  Persians  were,  therefore,  dispersed 
throughout  the  country,  driving  before  them  the  Ar¬ 
menians,  together  with  their  flocks  and  herds,  to  a 
rendezvous  in  a  plain  in  the  vicinity  of  Ararat.  The 
Turks  marched  as  far  as  Kars,  before  the  Shah,  who 
was  at  Erwandakert,  gave  the  order  that  the  captives 
should  march  toward  the  Aras  River.  The  march, 
therefore,  became  a  flight,  and  the  movement  of  so 
many  captives,  and  such  quantities  of  baggage  was 
accomplished  with  difficulty.  The  passage  of  the  Aras 
was  attended  with  great  loss  of  life,  so  that  no  more 
than  twelve  thousand  families,  or  about  sixty  thousand 
souls,  were  brought  into  Persia.  Five  thousand  more 
followed  soon  after  this.  We  are  told  that  only  the 
nobles  and  better  class  of  citizens  were  allotted  habi¬ 
tations  in  the  capital.  “  The  remainder  were  dispersed 
in  the  towns  and  villages  of  the  surrounding  country.” 
Those  who  went  to  the  capital  were  divided  into  two 
colonies,  and  inhabited  different  quarters  of  the  city. 
Soon  after  this  the  forces  of  the  Shah  were  sent  to 
Tabriz  and  Erewan,  and  brought  away  ten  thousand 
families  who  were  settled  in  the  districts  called  by  the 
Armenian  writer  Gurapat  and  Vahrapat,  unhealthy  re¬ 
gions,  where  all  perished  in  course  of  time. 

I  have  written  of  the  settlement  of  Julfah  near 
Ispahan,  by  colonists  from  the  city  Julfah  in  Northern 
Armenia.  The  founding  of  Julfah  was  subsequent  to 
the  occurrences  related  above. 


xv.]  THE  ARMENIANS— RELIGIOUS  SERVICE. 


325 


The  number  of  Armenians  now  in  the  eastern  dio¬ 
cese  of  Persia  is  three  thousand  families,  or  about 
fifteen  thousand  souls.  The  principal  settlements  of 
this  people  in  Central  and  Eastern  Persia  are  in  the 
districts  of  Feradune  Tcharmahal,  Kamar,  Kazas, 
Malair,  and  Karaghan,  and  the  cities  Julfah,  Tehran  and 
Hamadan.  The  inhabitants  of  the  rural  districts  are 
very  poor  and  ill  informed.  Quite  all  the  villages  are 
supplied  with  priests.  Many  of  them  have  received 
the  priesthood  from  their  fathers  as  an  inheritance. 
The  priesthood  in  Karaghan  has  remained  in  one  family 
during  seven  successive  generations.  Having  no  regu¬ 
lar  stipend,  the  priest  is  forced  by  his  necessities  to 
obtain  some  compensation  from  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments. 

The  duties  of  the  priest  are  to  enter  the  church 
morning  and  evening,  at  sunrise  and  sunset,  and  to 
read  the  daily  service,  to  bury  the  dead,  and  administer 
the  sacraments.  For  the  most  part,  the  priests  are 
very  illiterate,  having  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the 
Bible.  The  service  is  wholly  in  the  ancient  language. 
With  this  the  priests  are  in  part  acquainted ;  but  the 
people  are  not  able  to  understand  more  than  fragments 
of  the  service.  Very  little  special  preparation  is  re¬ 
quired  of  the  candidate  for  the  priesthood.  As  the 
candidate  is  usually  the  son  of  a  priest,  he  is  familiar 
with  the  forms  of  the  service.  The  necessary  appren¬ 
ticeship  in  the  lower  offices  goes  far  to  prepare  for  the 
higher  functions.  The  candidates  also  remain  a  time 


326 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xv. 


in  some  monastery  before  installation.  There  are  but 
few  schools  among  these  people  in  the  country  settle¬ 
ments.  The  Armenians  of  the  cities  are  usually 
artisans  and  merchants;  they  make  very  successful 
tailors  and  jewelers.  Of  all  the  non-Mohammedan 
sects  they  have  acquired  the  greatest  measure  of  influ¬ 
ence  with  the  Persian  Government.  Many  of  them 
are  employed  in  important  positions,  and  as  postmas¬ 
ters,  telegraphists,  and  officers  of  the  army. 

The  Armenians  have  a  distinct  cast  of  features  by 
which  they  may  be  known.  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  other  races  also  by  a  costume.  It  resembles 
the  military  cut,  or  the  clerical  coat.  This,  however, 
is  common  to  the  better  class  of  people  only. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


Mission  Establishments  in  Persia — Missions  in  1870 — In  1884 — Ques¬ 
tion  as  to  the  Direction  of  Missionary  Effort — -Problem  as  to  the  Use 
of  the  Persian  Language— Prejudices  of  the  Sects — Testimony  of 
Figures — First  Schools — Public  Worship — School  for  Jews — Circu¬ 
lation  of  Scriptures — Influence  with  the  Persian  Government — Med¬ 
ical  Department — The  Mission  in  Tabriz — The  Mission  in  Ramadan 
— Interest  among  the  Jews — Organization  of  the  Eastern  and  the 
Western  Persia  Missions — Bible  Agencies — Statistics  of  all  the 
American  Missions  in  Persia — The  Chief  Obstacles  to  Mission 
Work — The  Religious  Liberty  of  Non-Mohammedans  declared — 
Restrictions  Imposed  by  the  Archbishop — Misrepresentations  of  the 
Missionaries — Ostracism  of  Protestants — Persecution  of  Jews  in 
Hamadan — Similar  Opposition  in  Oroomiah — The  Law  of  Islam  as 
to  Apostasy — No  Rights  Secured  by  Treaty — The  Unrestricted  Sale 
of  the  Scriptures — Publication  in  Persian — Fanaticism — Unsettled 
Faith  of  the  People — First  Representative  of  United  States  Govern¬ 
ment  to  the  Court  of  Persia — American  Missionaries — Their  Protec¬ 
tion — Benefits  accruing  to  from  Influence  of  United  States  Minister. 

I  give  below  a  brief  statement  of  the  principal  features 
of  the  mission  establishments  in  Persia.  In  the  year 
1870  the  only  Protestant  mission  in  the  kingdom  was 
that  in  the  city  of  Oroomiah,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  in  the  United  States  of 
America.  In  the  year  1884  the  only  missions  were  in 
the  cities  of  Oroomiah,  Tehran,  Tabriz  and  Hamadan, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  same  American  Society, 

327 


328 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xvi. 


and  the  mission  in  Julfah,  sustained  by  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  of  England.  In  the  interval  from 
1870  to  1884  missions  have  been  undertaken  by  other 
societies,  and  have  been  discontinued. 

In  preceding  chapters  I  have  written  of  the  missions 
in  Oroomiah  and  Julfah,  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
establishments.  It  remains  for  me  to  give  some  account 
of  the  missions  in  other  places. 

The  mission  in  the  city  of  Tehran  was  begun  in  the 
autumn  of  1872,  that  in  Tabriz  in  1873,  and  in  Hama- 
dan  in  1881.  Previous  to  these  dates,  Nestorian  col¬ 
porteurs  had  for  some  time  been  stationed  in  these 
cities.  In  Hamadan,  mission  work  had  been  carried 

/ 

on  by  native  teachers  and  preachers,  under  the  super¬ 
vision  of  the  missionaries  in  Oroomiah  and  Tehran, 
from  1869  to  1881.  The  Armenians  are  the  only 
Christian  sect  in  those  three  cities. 

It  was  a  serious  question  in  the  opening  of  the  mis-' 
sion  in  Tehran,  whether  efforts  should  be  directed 
especially  and  exclusively  to  the  Armenians,  following 
the  example  of  the  Mission  to  the  Nestorians,  or 
whether  the  missionary  should  seek  to  reach  all 
classes,  and  make  use  of  the  Persian  language  for  this 
purpose.  If  efforts  were  to  be  directed  exclusively 
to  the  Armenians,  it  would  then  be  necessary  to  make 
the  Armenian  language  the  medium  of  missionary  in¬ 
struction,  which  would  practically  separate  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  from  the  masses  of  the  people,  the  Mo¬ 
hammedans,  who  speak  the  Persian  and  the  Turk- 


XVI.]  MISSION  WORK—  TEHRAN.  329 

ish  languages.  The  Persian  tongue  is  known  by  all 
classes  of  the  people,  but  there  was  the  possibility  that 
the  authorities  of  the  State  would  forbid  the  use  of 
the  Persian  language,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  not 
the  tongue  of  the  non-Mohammedan  races,  and  the 
use  of  it  might  be  thought  one  evidence  of  an  attempt 
to  proselyte  the  Mohammedans  to  the  Christian  faith. 
It  wras  determined,  however,  to  make  the  Persian 
tongue  the  medium  of  missionary  effort  in  teaching, 
and  especially  in  preaching.  It  was  also  decided  that 
it  should  be  the  declared  purpose  and  aim  of  the 
mission  here  to  reach  all  classes  of  the  people,  whether 
Christian  or  Mohammedan.  The  chief  officer  of  the 
kingdom  was  informed  by  the  first  missionary  stationed 
in  the  capital,  in  response  to  the  inquiry  of  that  offi¬ 
cer,  that  the  object  of  the  mission  would  be  to  reach 
all  the  people. 

The  first  evangelical  efforts  consisted  chiefly  in 
preaching,  and  in  the  sale  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
effect  of  this  method  was  to  form  a  congregation  com¬ 
posed  of  Armenians,  Mohammedans  and  Jews.  It 
might  be  thought  that  the  prejudices  of  the  people  of 
the  different  religions  against  one  another  would  pre¬ 
vent  any  union  in  a  religious  service. 

It  is  the  custom  of  every  religious  sect  to  use  its  own 
national  and  religious  language  in  all  religious  acts.  The 
Jew  conducts  the  synagogue  service  in  Hebrew  ;  the 
Mohammedan  worships  with  the  Arabic  tongue ;  and 
the  Nestorian  uses  the  Syrian,  and  the  Armenian,  the 


330 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xvi. 


ancient  language  of  that  name.  All  of  these  tongues 
are,  however,  unintelligible  to  the  most  part  of  the 
people,  and  experience  has  proved  that  they  receive 
with  favour  a  service  which  they  can  comprehend ;  and 
their  prejudices  yield  to  a  better  judgment.  Statistics 
show  that  the  missions  conducted  on  this  plan  have 
as  large  a  percentage  of  increase  as  those  which  are 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  evangelization  of  one  race 
of  the  people.  The  Armenians  being  professedly 
Christians,  it  might  be  expected  that  they  would  be 
more  easily  influenced  than  Jews  and  Mohammedans. 

The  first  schools  were  patronized  by  the  Arme¬ 
nians,  and  instruction  was  given  in  the  Armenian  and 
in  the  Persian  language.  The  school  for  boys,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months,  contained  forty  pupils.  In 
the  spring  of  1874  an  Armenian  woman  was  employed 
to  instruct  a  school  of  Armenian  girls.  In  the  autumn 
of  this  year  the  school  was  removed  to  buildings 
rented  for  the  purpose,  and  became  a  boarding  school, 
with  seventeen  pupils  instructed  by  Armenian  teachers, 
under  direction  of  the  missionaries.  The  services  of 
public  worship  were  conducted  in  two  or  three  places 
in  the  city  of  Tehran,  and  a  church  was  organized  in 

1876.  In  1879  a  school  was  opened  among  the  Jews, 
* 

with  more  than  a  hundred  pupils.  By  means  of 
native  assistants,  schools  were  opened  among  the 
Armenians  in  the  mountains  of  Karaghan,  in  villages 
adjacent  to  Tehran,  and  in  the  city  of  Rasht,  where,  in 
1883,  a  church  was  organized. 


XVI.] 


MISSION  WORK— ST  A  TISTICS . 


331 


The  Scriptures  in  the  Persian  language  have  been 
carried  to  the  principal  towns  oi  Central  and  Eastern 
Persia.  From  June,  1878,  until  now,1  a  Bible  depot  has 
been  kept  in  the  city  of  Mashhad,  whence  the  Scrip¬ 
tures  have  been  sent  to  Merv,  and  the  Turkmans,  and 
to  Herat.  The  Bible  has  been  sold  also  in  the  many 
settlements  of  the  Armenians  in  Central  Persia.  Much 
has  been  accomplished  at  Tehran,  not  only  by  these 
direct  methods  of  evangelization,  but  by  obtaining 
favourable  orders  from  the  Persian  government .  in 
relation  to  schools  and  congregations  in  Azarbijan, 
Hamadan  and  other  places.  In  later  years  a  medical 
department  has  enlarged  the  sphere  of  influence,  and 
the  mission  has  maintained  a  service  in  English  for 
the  benefit  of  American  and  European  residents  in 
Tehran.  The  statistics  of  the  mission  for  the  year 
1884  show  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  schools  of 
Tehran  to  be  one  hundred  and  thirty-one,  besides  the 
pupils  in  Rasht ;  and  the  average  attendance  at  public 
worship  was  about  one  hundred  souls,  fifty  or  sixty 
of  whom  were  Mohammedans.  The  medical  mission¬ 
ary  had  prescribed  for  two  thousand  five  hundred 
patients,  and  there  had  been  printed  in  Persian  four 
hundred  and  seventy-one  thousand  pages.  A  similar 
work  had  been  carried  on  by  the  missionaries  in  Ta¬ 
briz,  throughout  the  northern  part  of  the  province  of 
Azarbijan,  and  in  Georgia  as  far  as  to  Tiflis. 

The  language  used  in  Tabriz  is  the  Turkish.  The 

1 1884. 


332 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xvr. 


pupils  of  the  schools  are  Armenians ;  but  the  congre¬ 
gations  and  church  are  composed  largely  of  Moham¬ 
medans.  In  Tabriz  effort  has  been  directed  to  schools, 
the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  the  preparation  of 
books  in  the  Turkish  as  spoken  in  Azarbijan,  to  the 
medical  department,  and  especially  to  the  mainte¬ 
nance  of  congregations.  The  report  of  this  mission 
for  the  year  1884  gives  the  number  of  pupils  in  all 
the  schools  as  seventy-nine.  A  church  was  early  or¬ 
ganized,  and  converts  from  the  Mohammedans  have 
been  received  to  the  communion. 

The  mission  in  Hamadan  has  been  greatly  annoyed 
by  persecutions  started  by  the  jews,  and  by  orders 
of  the  government,  which  ,  have,  for  a  time,  caused 
an  interruption  of  the  schools.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  maintain  schools  and  public  worship  among 
both  Jews  and  Armenians.  Schools  were  opened  in 
this  city  for  Armenians  as  early  as  1870.  A  church 
was  organized  in  1876  composed  of  Armenians.  Re¬ 
ligious  worship  was  in  former  years  conducted  in  the 
Turkish  language,  but  is  now  in  either  Persian  or  Ar¬ 
menian.  A  very  great  religious  interest  was  excited 
among  the  Jews  of  this  place  in  1877-78,  and  some 
of  them  became  members  of  the  church. 

In  the  year  1884  the  school  for  girls  has  the  names 
of  fifty-six  pupils  enrolled  during  the  year.  A  school 
for  Jewish  girls  had,  at  one  time,  as  many  as  twenty- 
five  pupils.  The  school  for  Jewish  boys  numbers  fifty 
scholars.  The  average  attendance  of  the  congrega- 


XVI.] 


MISSION  WORN— STATISTICS. 


tion  is  reported  to  be  about  sixty  souls.  These  figures 
represent  the  first  years  of  missionary  work,  when 
many  difficulties  were  to  be  met.  They  do  not,  there¬ 
fore,  indicate  any  true  proportion  of  the  real  work 
accomplished  by  the  missionaries. 

In  1 88 1  the  mission  stations  of  Tehran  and  Rama¬ 
dan,  with  the  assistants  and  congregations  under  their 
supervision,  were  constituted  a  separate  mission,  and 
called  the  Eastern  Persia  Mission ;  and  the  stations 
of  Oroomiah  and  Tabriz  were  united  in  one  organiza¬ 
tion,  and  called  the  Western  Persia  Mission.  In  1880 
an  agency  of  the  American  Bible  Society  for  Northern 
Persia  was  established  at  Tabriz,  and  an  agency  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for  Southern  Per¬ 
sia  was  appointed  at  Julfah. 

In  a  previous  chapter  I  have  given  the  statistics  of 
the  Mission  to  the  Nestorians  in  the  year  1871.  The 
report  of  that  station  for  1883-84  gives  the  number  of 
church  members  as  one  thousand  six  hundred  and 
one ;  an  increase  in  thirteen  years  of  about  nine  hun¬ 
dred  communicants.  The  reports  of  the  two  missions 
of  Eastern  and  Western  Persia  for  the  year  1884  indi¬ 
cate  the  progress  made  in  the  interval  of  the  thirteen 
years.  At  this  time1  the  number  of  stations  occupied 
by  American  missionaries  is  four,  and  the  whole  num¬ 
ber  of  missionaries,  male  and  female,  on  the  ground, 
is  twenty-four.  The  native  assistants,  chiefly  in  the 
Nestorian  Mission,  are  in  all  two  hundred  and  thirty, 

1 1884. 


334 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xvi. 


and  the  churches  twenty-five,  with  one  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  ninety-six  communicants.  There  are 
two  hundred  and  eight  pupils  in  boarding-schools, 
and  two  thousand  four  hundred  and  fifty-two  in  the 
day  schools.  The  contributions  have  amounted  to 
$1,910.  The  number  of  attendants  in  the  congrega¬ 
tions  is  four  thousand  five  hundred  and  seventy-eight, 
and  the  number  of  pages  printed  is  one  million  six 
hundred  and  eighty  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
ninety.  The  chief  obstacle  to  mission  work  in  these 
cities  has  been  the  intolerance  of  the  Persian  govern¬ 
ment  and  of  the  non-Mohammedan  sects. 

The  government  of  Persia  makes  a  wide  distinction 
between  its  Mohammedan  and  its  alien  subjects  as  to 
the  matter  of  religious  liberty.  In  former  years,  and 
before  missionary  enterprise  was  known  in  the  land, 
the  religious  head  of  every  sect  was  recognized  as  the 
secular  and  spiritual  ruler  of  his  own  religious  order. 
When,  therefore,  the  people  were  led  through  mis¬ 
sionary  influence  and  teaching  to  accept  new  senti¬ 
ments  as  to  faith  and  worship,  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  attempted  to  prevent  the  change  by  coer¬ 
cion  ;  and  they  inflicted  fines  and  imprisonment 
and  other  punishments.  An  appeal  was  made  to  the 
Persian  authorities.  These  were  Mohammedans,  and 
there  was  no  law  to  which  they  were  required  to  con¬ 
form.  Their  decisions,  therefore,  were  often  contra¬ 
dictory,  and  were  dependent  upon  the  prospect  of 
personal  gain  which  might  be  presented  to  the  judge. 


XVI.] 


MISSION  WORK— IMPEDIMENTS  TO 


335 


In  1842  the  Persian  government  issued  an  order  that 
“  No  native  Christian  should  be  proselyted  irom  one 
sect  to  another;”  but  in  1851  an  order  was  given 
granting  the  largest  liberty  to  non-Mohammedans,  in¬ 
cluding  the  right  of  proselyting.  In  1878  the  Prime 
Minister  of  Persia  issued  an  order  declaring  the  right 
of  the  Jews  in  Hamadan  to  accept  the  Christian  faith. 
An  order  to  the  same  purport  was  given  by  the  Prime 
Minister  in  1881,  but  the  effect  of  this  was  in  great 
part  broken  by  orders  which  were  issued  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year — that  no  authority  should  be  given  to 
foreign  missionaries  to  purchase  property  or  establish 
schools.  These  orders  relating  to  foreigners  did  not, 
however,  directly  infringe  upon  the  religious  libeity  of 
the  non-Mohammedans. 

It  seems  to  be  pretty  well  settled  that  the  Persian 
authorities  will  maintain  the  religious  freedom  of  alien 
subjects.  The  unsettled  state. of  the  law  touching 
this  subject,  together  with  the  violent  tendencies  of 
the  priesthood,  have  given  rise  to  persecution  and  vio¬ 
lent  proceedings  in  quite  every  place  where  missions 
have  been  opened.  The  Armenian  archbishop,  of 
Julfah,  in  1873,  prohibited  attendance  on  Protestant 
congregations.  The  Protestant  missionaries  were 
represented  to  the  king  as  persons  desirous  of  sub¬ 
verting  both  the  Armenian  and  the  Mohammedan 
faith.  Armenians  who  identified  themselves  with 
Protestants  were  ostracized,  and  in  some  instances 
beaten  by  order  of  the  priest.  The  priest  in  Shevarin 


336 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xvi. 


caused  the  Protestant  teacher  to  be  expelled  from  the 
village.  The  Jews  of  Hamadan  who  adhered  to  the 
old  ways  succeeded  in  influencing  the  governor  to  fine 
some  of  the  Jews  who  had  become  Christians.  The 
Christian  Jews  were  prohibited  from  frequenting  the 
baths  and  the  markets  which  were  owned  by  Jews.  In 
the  year  1883  a  Christian  Jew  was  arrested  and  fined 
for  serving  as  a  teacher  of  Christian  Jews  in  Hamadan. 
Persecutions  of  this  sort  were  continued  during  several 
vears. 

In  Tehran,  in  1883,  a  combination  was  effected  by 
a  few  Jews  to  break  up  the  school  established  in  the 
Jewish  quarter.  The  life  of  the  principal  teacher  was 
threatened.  A  rabbi  who  taught  in  the  school  was 
forced  to  leave,  and  the  number  of  pupils  was  reduced 
from  forty  to  fifteen  by  means  of  threats  against  the 
parents.  Even  the  children  were  beaten  in  the  streets 
as  they  came  to  the  school.  The  opposition  was 
broken  up  only  by  the  arrest  of  the  ringleaders  by 
the  Persian  authorities  in  Tehran,  and  the  imposition 
of  a  fine.  The  mission  in  Oroomiah  has  met  with 
like  opposition  from  the  bishops  and  priests  of  the 
Nestorian  Church,  and  from  the  caprice  of  Moham¬ 
medan  rulers,  during  half  a  century. 

The  progress  of  the  missions  among  the  non- 
Mohammedan  people  has  formed  a  precedent  in  favour 
of  religious  liberty,  and  it  appears  to  be  pretty  clearly 
settled  that  the  authorities  recognize  the  right  of  every 
man  in  the  kingdom  to  his  own  religious  convictions, 


XVI.]  MISSION  WORK— IMPEDIMENTS  TO 


337 


except  a  Mohammedan.  Every  child  of  a  Moham¬ 
medan  father  is,  by  Mohammedan  custom,  held  to  be 
a  Mohammedan,  and  the  reception  by  the  child  of  any 
other  religious  faith  than  that  of  his  parent,  is  held  to 
be  apostasy. 

The  efforts  of  the  missionaries  in  behalf  of  Mo¬ 
hammedans  are  hindered  by  the  intolerance  of  the 
so-called  laws  of  Islam,  and  especially  by  the  intol¬ 
erance  of  the  Mohammedan  religious  orders,  and  the 
fanaticism  of  the  people.  The  spirit  and  practice  of 
this  people  have  been  generally  thought  to  be  such 
as  to  make  any  missionary  effort  for  them  impracti¬ 
cable.  This  impression  is  wrong.  There  are  methods 
of  evangelical  effort  for  these  people,  which  are  prac¬ 
ticable  and  fruitful  as  the  facts  and  figures  of  such 
effort  indicate.  In  Persia,  no  religious  rights  have  been 
secured  by  treaty  as  in  Turkey  and  other  countries. 

In  the  year  1880  an  order  was  issued  by  the  Persian 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  through  the  British  Min¬ 
ister,  to  all  missionaries  in  Persia,  forbidding  them  to 
give  instruction  to  Mohammedans,  or  to  allow  Moham¬ 
medans  to  attend  the  public  services  of  Christian 
worship. 

In  the  following  year  the  missionaries  notified  the 
Persian  authorities  that  they  could  not  assume  any 
responsibility  for  the  attendance  of  Mohammedans 
upon  the  public  worship,  and  asked  relief  from  the 
order.  The  particular  feature  which  seemed  to  fur¬ 
nish  ground  for  complaint  and  for  expectation  of 


22 


33§ 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xvi. 


relief  was  that,  by  the  order,  the  missionaries  were  re¬ 
quired  to  act  as  a  police  over  Mohammedans  for  the 
protection  of  Islam.  Upon  this  representation  by  the 
missionaries  the  matter  of  the  attendance  of  Moham¬ 
medans  was  referred  by  order  of  the  Shah  to  the 
police.  The  missionaries  assumed  no  responsibility 
for  the  attendance  of  any  one  class  of  people.  Mo¬ 
hammedans  attended  the  Christian  assemblies  previous 
to  this  order,  and  have  continued  to  attend  since.  They 
were,  however,  very  often  intimidated. 

In  former  years  in  Tehran,  spies  were  sent  by  the 
mullahs  to  the  mission  chapels,  and  the  persons  attend¬ 
ing  were  warned,  and  some  were  cited  before  a  mujta- 
heed  and  admonished.  These  measures  succeeded  in 
preventing  the  attendance  of  Mohammedans  for  a  time. 
In  Tabriz  the  Mohammedans  who  frequented  the  Chris¬ 
tian  congregations  were  arrested  and  publicly  flogged. 
In  Tehran  the  attendance  of  Mussulmans  in  the  con¬ 
gregations  has,  of  late,  been  greater  than  in  previous 
years.  No  objection  is  made  by  the  authorities  to  the 
sale  and  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  Persian 
language,  and  Christian  books  receive  the  sanction  of 
the  censor  of  the  press.  These  books  are  also  pub¬ 
lished  by  Mohammedan  printers  in  Tehran. 

There  is  much  fanaticism  in  Persia,  but  this  is  no 
indication  of  strength  in  Islam.  That  faith  appears 
to  be  held  by  a  very  slight  tenure.  That  it  is  so  held 
is  shown  by  the  readiness  with  which  the  people  adopt 
any  new  system  of  religion  as  that  of  the  Bab.  The 


XVI.] 


RELIGIOUS  SKEPTICISM. 


339 


doctrine  of  the  twelfth  Imam,  and  of  the  Mahde,  has 
prepared  the  minds  of  the  people  for  change,  and 
the  absurdities  of  the  system  of  the  Twelve  Imams 
has  gone  far  to  shake  the  faith  in  Islam. 

Religious  skepticism  prevails  among  all  classes  of 
the  people.  The  intolerance  of  a  few  secular  rulers 
and  mullahs  serves  to  prevent  a  reformation,  but  it 
increases  more  than  it  hinders  infidelity.  Unbelief  is 
widespread.  It  is  not  skepticism  concerning  one  re¬ 
ligion,  but  all  religions.  The  religious  nature  and 
superstitious  regard  for  some  sacred  rites,  hold  the 
masses  of  the  people  to  the  national  faith ;  while  the 
intolerance  of  the  secular  and  religious  authorities 
exclude  the  knowledge  of  any  system  which  might 
commend  itself  to  the  people  as  more  rational  and 
desirable  than  that  which  now  prevails. 

The  government  of  the  United  States .  was  never 
represented  in  Persia  until  a.  d.  1883.  Mr.  S.  G.  W. 
Benjamin  was  the  first  representative  of  this  govern¬ 
ment,  at  the  court  of  the  Shah.  He  entered  Tehran 
in  June,  1883,  as  Minister  Resident  and  Consul-gen¬ 
eral.  During  near  fifty  years,  the  American  mission¬ 
aries  were  the  only  Americans  in  Persia,  and  they  were 
protected,  as  occasion  required,  by  the  British,  the 
French,  and  the  Russian  Legations.  In  the  greater 
part  of  this  time,  however,  their  interests  were  kindly 
cared  for,  by  the  British  Legation.  It  could  not  be 
otherwise  than  that  the  arrival  at  the  capital,  of  a 
Legation  of  the  United  States,  should  create  in  the 

o 


340 


l 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  IMAMS. 


[xvi. 


mind  of  the  -Shah,  and  of  the  officers  of  the  Persian 
government,  a  greater  interest  in  America  and  Ameri¬ 
cans.  The  missionaries  were  in  a  position  to  reap  the 
benefits  of  this  interest,  and  the  Minister,  in  the  brief 
period  of  his  residence  in  Tehran,  was  able  to  secure 
for  them,  from  the  Persians,  some  valuable  conces¬ 


sions. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.1 


I 


Persia:  G.  Fowler.  2  vols.  8vo. 
Colburn. 

Persia  and  Afghanistan.  8vo.  Ridg- 
way. 

Ancient  Persia  and  Assyria :  W.  S. 

W.  Vaux.  8vo.  Hall. 

Persia  and  Turkey :  Lt.  Col.  Stuart. 
8vo. 

Persia — Travels  in  :  H.  Southgate. 

2  vols.  8vo.  Bogne. 

British  Interest  in  Persia :  Sir  H. 

J.  Brydges.  8vo.  Bohn. 

Court  and  People  of  Persia :  J. 
Kitto.  i8mo.  Rel.  Trans.  So¬ 
ciety. 

History  of  Persia :  J.  B.  Frazer. 
i2mo.  Nelson. 

Mission  to  the  Jews  of  Persia: 

Stern.  •  8vo.  Wertheim. 
Residence  in  Persia:  J.  Perkins. 
8vo.  Wily. 

Sketches  of  Persia :  Sir  J.  Malcom. 
8vo.  Murray. 

Specimens  of  Popular  Poetry  in 
Persia :  A.  Chodzko.  8vo.  New 
Ed.  1861. 

Travels  in  Persia :  Uncle  Oliver. 

i8mo.  H.  G.  Allen.  Bohn. 
Persian  and  English  Dictionary : 

W.  L.  Tucker.  Madden. 
Sentences  in  Persian  :  D.  S.  Moon- 
shee.  Smith. 

Persian  Caligraphy  :  J.  R.  Ballen- 
tine.  Madden  &  Smith. 

Fables  in  Persian :  Col.  Onseley. 

Bidpair  Ed.  4to.  Allen. 
Persian  Flower :  Perkins.  Low. 
Persian  Grammar :  J.  R.  Ballentine. 
24mo.  Madden. 

Persia:  M.  Ibraheem.  Imp.  8vo. 
Allen. 


P  ersia — Letters :  C.  Stewart.  4to, 
Allen. 

Persian  Poets :  Sir  J.  Onseley.  8vo. 
Allen. 

Persian  Princes  in  London:  J.  B. 

Frazer.  2  vols.  8vo.  Bentley. 
Persian  Stories  with  Translations: 

Moonshee.  Smith  &  Elder. 
Persian  Wars,  from  Herodotus  :  C. 

W.  Stocker.  2  vols.  Longmans. 
History  of  the  Persians.  8vo.  Re- 
lig.  Tract.  Soc. 

Caravan  Journeys  in  Persia :  R.  B. 

M.  Binney.  2  vols.  Allen. 
Present  State  of  Persia:  J.  P.  Fer- 
rier.  2d  Ed.  8vo.  Murray. 
Persia — Two  Years’  Travel  in  :  W. 

A.  Shepherd.  .  8vo.  Bentley. 
Persian  Campaign :  Outram  and 
Havelock.  Routledge. 

Persian  Grammar :  A.  H.  Black. 
i2mo.  Quaritch. 

Ancient  Persians:  Mrs.  Young. 

8vo.  Sanders  &  Co. 

Persian  Dictionary:  Johnson’s — 
Arabic  and  English.  4to.  Lor- 
den. 

Persia  During  the  Famine :  W. 
Buttlebank.  1873.  (This  book 
has  no  account  of  the  famine 
worthy  of  mention.) 

Persia’s  Shah — State  Visit  to  Her 
Majesty.  Pickering. 

Through  Persia :  A.  Arnold.  2 
vols.  1876. 

Persian  Art:  Major  R.  M.  Smith. 
Tinsly  Bros. 

Persian  Art  :  Major  R.  M.  Smith. 
Chapman. 

Persian  Dictionary:  E.  H.  Palmer. 
Longmans. 


1  The  author  does  not  profess  to  give  here  the  dates  of  the  latest  editions  of  these 
books. 


341 


342 


BIBLIO  GRAPHY. 


Persia — Eastern  Boundary.  2  vols. 
MacMillans. 

Persian  Pocket  Manual:  H.  W. 

Clark.  W.  H.  Allen.  1878. 
Midnight  Marches  Through  Persia : 

Ballantine.  1879. 

Persia — My  Wanderings  in  :  T.  S. 

Anderson.  J.  Black.  1880. 
Persian  Minister — Herat  and  Great 
Britain.  W.  H.  Allen.  1880. 
Persia — Ancient  and  Modern:  J. 

Piggot.  H.  S.  King.  1874. 
Persia — Antiquarian  Researches : 

Thomas.  Triibner.  1874. 
Persia— Sketch  of  the  History  of: 
C.  K.  Markham.  Longmans. 

1874. 

Persia  to  the  Arab  Conquest;  W. 
S.  W.  Vaux.  S.  P.  C.  K.  Soc. 

1875. 

Caravan  Journey  in  Persia:  J.  P. 
Ferrier.  New  Ed.  Murray. 
1857. 

Persia  and  Ceylon,  etc. — Two 
Years  in  :  R.  B.  Binning.  2  vols. 
Allen.  1857. 

Diplomatic  Residence  in  Persia: 
Eastwick.  2  vols.  Smith  & 
Elder.  1864. 

Travels  in  Persia,  Georgia,  etc.: 
M.  Wagner.  3  vols.  Hurst, 
1856. 

History  of  Persia  :  R.  Grant  Wat¬ 
son.  Smith  &  Elder.  1866. 

Life  and  Manners  in  Persia:  Lady 
Seil.  Murray.  1856. 

Persia  and  Russia;  Viscount  Pol- 
lington.  Moxon.  1867. 


Tennessean  in  Persia.  Marsh. 
Persian  War:  W.  A.  Shepherd. 
Bentley.  1857. 

Persia  and  Turkey — Frontiers  of: 
Sir  A.  T.  Cunyngham.  Murray. 
1872. 

Great  Tale  of  the  Persian  War: 

G.  W.  Cox.  Longmans.  1861. 
Persia’s  Ancient  Moslem  Noble: 

Mrs.  Young.  Saunders.  1857. 
Nestorians,  Aslan,  A  Tale  of.  1858. 
Nestorians,  Missionary  to :  D.  T. 

Stoddard.  New  York.  1858. 
Dawnings  of  Light  in  the  East :  H. 

A.  Stern.  Purdy.  1854. 

Travels  and  Adventures  of  Rev. 
Joseph  Wolff.  Saunders,  Otley 
&  Co.  1861. 

History  of  Persia — General  Sketch 
of :  C.  R.  Markham.  Longmans. 
1874. 

Travels  in  Koordistan :  J.  B.  Fraser. 
Bentley. 

Journey  into  Khorasan :  J.  B. 

Fraser.  Longmans.  1825. 
Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  and 
Babylonia,  etc. :  Sir  R.  Ker.  Por¬ 
ter.  Longmans.  1821. 

Travels  of  Sir  John  Chardin  into 
Persia,  etc. :  Bateman,  1691. 
Travels  in  Luristan  and  Arabistan  : 
Baron  C.  A.  De  Bode.  2  vols. 
Madden  &  Co.  1846. 

Mountain  Nestorians — Dr.  Grant : 
Thomas  Laurie.  D.  Lothrop. 
Boston.  1874. 

Land  of  the  Lion  and  the  Sun; 
Wills.  London.  1882. 


TABLE  OF  DISTANCES  AND  ALTITUDES 


Names  of  Flaces. 


Farasangs. 


Altitude  above 
the  level 
of  the  sea. 


Tehran 


Tehran 


Oroomiah  to 

Tabriz 

Tehran  “ 

Rabadkareem 
Khanabad  “ 

Kushak  “ 

Pass  of  the  Karaghan  Mts.  “ 
Bevaron  “ 

Nobaron  “ 

Mara 
Zara 

Malagird  “ 

Pass 

Hamadan  “ 

Kamkasie  “ 

Pass 
Diza 
Korba 
Tchibooklee 
Daghelan  “ 

Pass 

Keyomar  “ 

Pass 

Senah  “ 

Chemook  “ 

Pass  “ 

Kaltevand  “ 

Dewandarah 


Pass 


River  “ 
Pass  “ 

Sahib 

Gaghatai  River 

Sakis  “ 

Saru  “ 

Kara 
Memikan 
Talava 
Souj  Bolak 

Oroomiah  - 

to  Resht 
Anzile 
Baku 
Tiflis 

Pote  - 

to  Ispahan  - 


33% 

96 — 100 
6 
8 
6 

2 

3 

4 
4 

4 

5 


river 


6 — 48 
6 
54 
3 
3 
3 
3 

154 

154 

1 

2 — 24^4 
3 


2 

6 

2 
4 

4 

3 
1 

1 

154 

3—2354 

2 

4 

5 
2 

3 — 16 

-  20  % 

S3 

5 

240  miles. 

353  “ 

130  “ 

71  farasang. 


4200  ft. 
4200  ft. 
3500  ft. 
4500  ft. 
4200  ft. 

6700  ft. 

S3°o  ft. 
5600  ft. 
5300  ft. 

6ico  ft. 
6100 — 6500  ft. 
6500  ft. 
7500  ft. 
5900  ft. 
6150  ft. 
6000  ft. 
5900  ft. 
6300  ft. 
6600  ft. 
7300  ft. 
5100  ft. 
5400  ft. 
6150  ft. 
6300 — 6300  ft. 
5000  ft. 
6200  ft., 

7°5°  ft; 
5000  ft. 
4800  ft. 

S5°°  ft. 
5100  ft. 
5000  ft. 
5000  ft. 


6000  ft. 
4400  ft. 

60  ft.  bel.  level 

<«  it  it 

a  a  a 

1500  ft. 
Black  Sea. 
4200  ft. 


CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS’ 


New  and  Standard  Publications 

IN 

THEOLOGY,  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE,  THE  HISTORY 
OF  RELIGIONS,  CHURCH  HISTORY,  ETC. 


Rev.  Samuel  J.  Andrews. 

THE  LIFE  OF  OUR  LORD  UPON  THE  EARTH;  Considered  in  its  Historical, 
Chronological  and  Geographical  Relations.  New  Edition.  Crown  8vo.  $2.50. 

“For  both  research  and  candor ,  I  do  not  know  its  superior ." 

— Mark  Hopkins,  D.D.,  LL.H. 

GOD’S  REVELATIONS  OF  HIMSELF  TO  MEN,  As  successively  made  in  the 
Patriarchal,  Jewish  and  Christian  Dispensations,  and  in  the  Messianic  King¬ 
dom.  Crown  8vo. 

Edwin  C.  Bissell,  D.D. 

THE  PENTATEUCH:  Its  Origin  and  Structure;  An  Examination  of  Recent 
Theories.  1  vol.,  8vo.  $3.00. 

_  Professor  BisselPs  contribution  to  the  discussion  of  the  character  and 
import  of  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch  is  broader  in  its  scope  and  scholarship 
than  any  book  that  has  hitherto  appeared  on  the  conservative  side  of  the 
question . 

Francis  'Bowen ,  LL.D . 

A  LAYMAN’S  STUDY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  BIBLE;  Considered  in  its  Literary 
and  Secular  Aspect.  1  vol.,  izmo.  $1.00. 

The  views  presented  in  this  volume  are  strikingly  independent  and  free 
from  the  trammels  of  the  schools,  but  at  the  same  time  they  are  wholly 
reverent  and  in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  the  Bible. 

Charles  A .  Briggs ,  D.D. 

AMERICAN  PRESBYTERIANISM.  Its  Origin  and  Early  History,  together  with 
an  Appendix  of  Letters  and  Documents,  many  of  which  have  recently  been 
discovered.  i2mo,  with  maps.  $3.00. 

BIBLICAL  STUDY.  Its  Principles,  Methods  and  History.  Together  with  a 
Catalogue  of  Books  of  Reference.  8vo.  $2.50. 

Prof.  Briggs'  book  is  one  indication  of  the  revival  of  Biblical  Study , 
which  is  now  in  progress ,  and  is  one  of  the  best  fruits  of  it.  It  is  ample 
in  scholarship,  reverent  in  tone,  sympathetic  toward  the  new  criticism, 
though  conservative  in  its  theological  attitude. 


2 


THEOLOGY,  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE,  ETC. 


Horace  ‘Bushnell ,  D.D. 

NATURE  AND  THE  SUPERNATURAL,  As  together  constituting  the  One  Sys¬ 
tem  of  God.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

CHRISTIAN  NURTURE.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

SERMONS  FOR  THE  NEW  LIFE.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

CHRIST  AND  HIS  SALVATION.  In  Sermons  variously  related  thereto.  12010. 
$1.50. 

SERMONS  ON  LIVING  SUBJECTS.  12010.  $1.50. 

THE  VICARIOUS  SACRIFICE.  Grounded  in  Principles  interpreted  by  Human 
Analogies.  Two  vols.  nmo.  $3.00. 

GOD  IN  CHRIST.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

WORK  AND  PLAY.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

MORAL  USES  OF  DARK  THINGS.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

BUILDING  ERAS  IN  RELIGION.  $1.50. 

WOMAN’S  SUFFRAGE:  The  Reform  against  Nature.  12010.  $1.50. 

THE  CHARACTER  OF  JESUS,  Forbidding  his  possible  Classification  with 
Men.  32010,  cloth,  net,  60  cents  ;  paper,  net,  40  cents. 

Rev.  IV.  J.  Conybeare,  and  Rev.  J .  S.  Howson. 

THE  LIFE  AND  EPISTLES  OF  ST.  PAUL.  Two  volumes  in  one ,  with  all  the 
Maps  and  Illustrations.  Half  calf,  $5.50  ;  sheep,  $4.50  ;  cloth,  $3.00. 

Notwithstanding  the  very  able  and  comprehensive  works  that  have 
appeared  since  Conybeare  and  Howson' s  St.  Paul  was  written ,  it  remains 
unquestionably  the  standard  treatise  on  the  subject. 

Josiah  P.  Cooke,  LL.D. 

RELIGION  AND  CHEMISTRY  ;  A  Restatement  of  an  Old  Argument.  A  revised 
edition,  with  additions.  12100.  $1.50. 

“  Religion  and  Chemistry  presents  the  happiest  combination  of  religion , 
philosophy  and  natural  science  in  a  harmonious  trinity  that  we  have  ever 
seen." 

John  *De  Witt,  D.D. ,  ^ 

Professor  in  Lane  Theological  Seminary. 

SERMONS  ON  THE  CHRISTIAN  LIFE.  1  vol.,  8vo.  $2.50. 

Dr.  De  Witt's  book  is  not  a  discussion  of  special  doctrines  or  phases  of 
Christianity,  but  deals  with  Christianity,  considered  as  a  whole,  front 
various  aspects  of  human  life.  It  consists  of  strong,  manly,  earnest  dis¬ 
courses  upon  subjects  which  appeal  to  a  very  large  class  of  readers. 


/.  A.  Corner,  D.D. 

DOCTRINE  OF  THE  FUTURE  STATE,  With  an  Introduction  and  Notes  by 
Rev.  Newman  Smyth.  i2mo.  $1.00. 

A  very  suggestive  discussion  of  the  events  following  death,  as  indicated 
by  the  established  laws  of  mind  and  the  revelations  of  the  Bible. 


THEOLOGY,  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE,  ETC. 


3 


Henry  M.  Field ,  D.D. 

ON  THE  DESERT.  Crown  8vo.  $2.00. 

AMONG  THE  HOLY  HILLS.  With  a  map.  Crown  8vo.  $1.50. 

George  P.  Fisher,  D.D . 

SUPERNATURAL  ORIGIN  OF  CHRISTIANITY;  With  Special  Reference  to  the 
Theories  of  Renan,  Strauss,  and  the  Tubingen  School.  New  and  enlarged 
edition .  8vo.  $3.00. 

THE  REFORMATION.  8vo.  $2.50. 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY;  With  a  view  of  the  State  of  the  Roman 
World  at  the  Birth  of  Christ.  8vo.  $3.00. 

FAITH  AND  RATIONALISM  ;  With  Short  Supplementary  Essays  on  Related 
Topics.  121x10.  75  cents. 

A  new  edition  of  this  valuable  book  for  popular  circulation.  Prof. 
Fisher  has  thoroughly  revised  the  text  and  added  notes  and  much  inter¬ 
esting  new  matter. 

DISCUSSIONS  IN  HISTORY  AND  THEOLOGY.  8vo.  $3.00. 

THE  CHRISTIAN  RELIGION.  iamo,  paper,  30  cents  ;  cloth,  40  cents. 

THE  GROUNDS  OF  THEISTIC  AND  CHRISTIAN  BELIEF.  8vo.  $2.50. 

Asa  Gray,  LL.D. 

NATURAL  SCIENCE  AND  RELIGION.  Crown  8vo.  $1.00. 

“  This  little  book  is  the  best  and  clearest  explanation  of  7 ohat  modern 
science  is  in  its  essence,  and  what  its  conclusions  are,  that  is  anywhere  to 
be  found  in  brief  compass  by  unscientific  readers ." — N.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

Arnold  Guyot,  LL.D. 

■  CREATION  ;  Or,  the  Biblical  Cosmogony  in  the  Light  of  Modern  Science.  With 
full-page  wood-cuts  and  lithographic  plates,  nmo.  $1.50. 

Samuel  Harris,  D.D. 

THE  PHILOSOPHICAL  BASIS  OF  THEISM.  An  examination  of  the  Personality 
of  Man,  to  ascertain  his  capacity  to  know  and  serve  God,  and  the  validity  of 
the  principle  underlying  the  defence  of  Theism.  8vo.  $3.50. 

This  work  is  of  great  value  as  an  exposition  of  first  theological  prin¬ 
ciples  in  the  light  and  for  the  service  of  Christian  belief;  it  is  extremely 
fascinating  for  minds  of  a  philosophical  turn. 

Hibbert  Lectures. 

See  Muller,  Renouf.  Kuenen,  Reville  and  Pfleiderer. 

Professor  L.  E .  Hicks. 

A  CRITIQUE  OF  DESIGN- ARGUMENTS.  A  Historical  Review  and  Free  Exam¬ 
ination  of  the  Methods  of  Reasoning  in  Natural  Theology.  12010.  $2.00. 

“  We  venture  the  prediction  that  Professor  Hicks's  fascinating  and  in 
every  way  admirable  treatise  will  become  recognized  as  one  of  the  works 
which  not  only  mark  but  help  to  make  an  epoch  in  speculative  thought.  — 
The  Examiner. 


4- 


THEOLOGY,  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE,  ETC. 


Charles  Hodge,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

SYSTEMATIC  THEOLOGY.  Complete  in  three  vols.,  including  Index.  8vo. 
Half  calf,  $19.50;  cloth,  $12.00 

WHAT  IS  DARWINISM  ?  I2U10.  $X.50. 

DISCUSSIONS  IN  CHURCH  POLITY.  From  Contributions  to  the  Princeton 
Review.  Arranged  by  Rev.  William  Durant,  with  a  Preface  by  A.  A.  Hodge, 
D.D.  $3.50. 

CONFERENCE  PAPERS;  Or,  Analyses  of  Discourses,  Doctrinal  and  Practical, 
Delivered  on  Sabbath  Afternoons  to  the  Students  of  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary.  8vo.  $3.00. 

“  We  take  it  to  be  the  attribute  of  a  great  mind  to  make  difficult  subjects 
simple  and  clect.r.  It  is  just  here  that  Dr.  Hodge  shows  his  superiority  to 
other  men.  His  intellect  penetrated  so  far  down  into  the  deep  well  of 
truth,  that  the  water  which  he  brought  up  was  as  clear  as  crystal.”—  Rev. 
Wm.  M.  Paxton,  D.D. 

Rev.  H.  S.  Holland. 

LOGIC  AND  LIFE.  With  other  Sermons.  With  an  Introductory  Notice,  by 
President  Noah  Porter.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

The  topics  treated  are  vital  and  fundamental .  the  Trinity ,  the  In - 
carnation ,  Christian  Society,  the  Soul's  Progress  in  Strong  Faith  and  its 
Outlook  toward  the  Better  Land. 

Mark  Hopkins,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

THE  LAW  OF  LOVE,  AMD  LOVE  AS  A  LAW;  Or,  Christian  Ethics.  A  new 

edition  with  important  additions.  i2mo.  $1.75. 

SCRIPTURAL  IDEA  OF  MAN.  nmo.  $1.00. 

TEACHINGS  AND  COUNSELS.  Twenty  Baccalaureate  Sermons,  with  a  Dis¬ 
course  on  President  Garfield.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

John  F.  Hurst,  D.D. 

BIBLIOTHECA  THEOLOGiCA.  A  select  and  classified  Bibliography  of  Theol¬ 
ogy  and  General  Religious  Literature.  $3.00. 

c A.  Kuenen,  D.D.,  LL.D . 

NATIONAL  RELIGIONS  AND  UNIVERSAL  RELIGIONS.  The  Hibbert  Lectures 
for  1882.  i2ino.  $1.50. 

George  T.  Ladd,  D.D. 

THE  DOCTRINE  OF  SACRED  SCRIPTURE.  A  Critical,  Historical  and  Dog¬ 
matic  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Nature  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
2  vols.,  8vo.  $7.00. 

“  VPe  doubt  whether  during  the  age  there  has  been  a  more  scholarly  and 
masterly  argument  added  to  the  literature  of  Christianity  than  this 
critical  review  of  the  doctrine  of  Sacred  Scripture  by  Professor  Ladd.” — 
Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHURCH  POLITY.  Crown  8vo.  $2.50. 

James  Legge. 

THE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA.  Confucianism  and  T&oism  described  and  com¬ 
pared  with  Christianity.  i2mo.  $1.50. 


THEOLOGY,  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE,  ETC. 


Franfois  Lenormant. 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  HISTORY,  According  to  the  Bible  and  the  Traditions  of 
Oriental  Peoples.  From  the  Creation  of  Man  to  the  Deluge.  i2mo.  $2.50. 

James  M.  Macdonald ,  D.D. 

THE  LIFE  AND  WRITINGS  OF  ST.  JOHN,  Edited  with  an  Introduction,  by 
the  Very  Rev.  J.  S-  Howson,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Chester.  With  33  illustrations 
and  2  maps.  8vo.  $3.00. 

Selah  Merrill . 

EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN:  A  Record  of  Travel  and  Observation  in  the  Countries 
of  Moab,  Gilead,  and  Bashan,  during  the  years  1875-1877.  With  illustrations 
and  Maps.  8vo.  $2.50. 

Dr.  MerrilPs  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Land  will 
take  its  place  along  side  of  Robinson’s  Researches. 

Edward  D.  Morris ,  D.D . 

ECCLESIOLOGY  :  A  Treatise  on  the  Church  and  Kingdom  of  God  on  Earth. 
8vo.  $1.75. 

The  plan  is  a  comprehensive  one,  and  the  discussion  is  marked  by 
candor,  fairness,  thoroughness  and  literary  ability  of  the  highest  type. 

F.  Max  Miiller . 

LECTURES  ON  THE  SCIENCE  OF  RELIGION;  With  Papers  on  Buddhism,  and 
a  Translation  of  the  Dhammapada,  or  Path  of  Virtue.  Crown  8vo.  $2.00. 

LECTURES  ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF  RELIGION,  As  illustrated  by 
the  Religions  of  India.  Hibbert  Lectures  for  1878.  Crown  8vo.  $2.50. 

T.  C.  Murray. 

THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE  PSALMS.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

“  One  of  the  most  important  works  in  the  department  of  biblical  intro¬ 
duction  and  criticism  that  have  been  produced  in  this  country .” — The  In¬ 
dependent. 

O.  Pjleiderer, 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL  ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
CHRISTIANITY.  The  Hibbert  Lectures  for  1885.  Crown  8vo.  $2.00. 

Austin  Phelps ,  D.D. 

THE  THEORY  OF  PREACHING;  Or,  Lectures  on  Homiletics.  8vo.  $2.50. 

MEN  AND  BOOKS;  Or,  Studies  in  Homiletics.  Lectures  introductory  to 
“  Theory  of  Preaching.”  8vo.  $2.00. 

ENGLISH  STYLE  IN  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE.  With  special  reference  to  the 
usages  of  the  Pulpit.  8vo.  $2.00. 

MY  PORTFOLIO.  Collection  of  Essays.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

MY  STUDY  AND  OTHER  ESSAYS.  iamo.  $1.50. 

“  To  the  treatment  of  his  subject  Dr.  Phelps  brings  such  qualifi cations 
as  very  few  men  now  living  possess.  He  is  one  of  those  natures  which  are 
instinctively  critical,  and  yet  full  of  what  Matthew  Arnold  happily  calls 
*  sweet  reasonableness .’  ” 


6 


THEOLOGY,  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE,  ETC. 


P.  Le  Page  Renouf. 

THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF  RELIGION,  As  illustrated  by  the  Religion  of 
Ancient  Egypt.  The  Hibbert  Lectures  for  1879^  nmo.  $1.50. 

Albert  Reville . 

THE  ANCIENT  RELIGIONS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU.  The  Hibbert  Lectures 

for  1884.  i2mo.  $1.50. 

Philip  Schaff,  D.D. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.  New  edition,  rewritten  and  en¬ 
larged. 

APOSTOLIC  CHRISTIANITY,  A.  D.  1— 100.  8vo.  $4.00. 

ANTE-NICENE  CHRISTIANITY,  A.  D.  100—325.  8vo.  $4.00. 

NICENf  AND  POST  NICE  CHRISTIANITY,  A.  D.  311—600.  $4.00. 

MEDI/EVAL  CHRISTIANITY,  A.  D,  590—1073.  $4  00. 

“ In  no  other  single  work  of  its  kind  with  which  I  am  acquainted  will 
students  and  general  readers  find  so  much  to  instruct  and  interest  them 
— Professor  Roswell  D.  Hitchcock,  D.D. 

THE  PERSON  OF  CHRIST.  The  Miracle  of  History.  With  a  Reply  to  Strauss 
and  Renan,  and  a  Collection  of  Testimonies  of  Unbelievers,  ismo.  $1.00. 

CHRIST  AND  CHRISTIANITY.  Studies  in  Christology,  Creeds  and  Confes¬ 
sions,  Protestantism  and  Romanism,  Reformation  Principles,  Sunday  Obser¬ 
vance,  Religious  Freedom,  and  Christian  Union.  1  vol.,  8vo.  $2.50. 

A  discussion  of  many  of  those  vital  questions  which  are  forced  upon 
the  minds  of  thinking  Christians  of  to-day ,  by  a  writer  whose  profound 
knowledge  of  all  phases  of  principles  and  dogmas ,  and  of  the  records  of 
the  Christian  church ,  will  secure  at  once  the  attention  of  all  students  to 
his  work. 

William  G.  T.  Shedd,  D.D. 

A  HISTORY  OF  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE.  Two  vols.,  8vo.  $5.00. 

A  TREATISE  ON  HOMILETICS  AND  PASTORAL  THEOLOGY.  8vo.  $2.50. 
THEOLOGICAL  ESSAYS.  Crown  8vo.  $2.50. 

LITERARY  ESSAYS.  8vo.  $2.50. 

A  CONCISE  ANALYTICAL  COMMENTARY  ON  ST.  PAUL’S  EPISTLE  TO 
THE  ROMANS.  8vo.  $3.00. 

SERMONS  TO  THE  NATURAL  MAN.  Crown  8vo.  $2.50. 

SERMONS  TO  THE  SPIRITUAL  MAN.  Crown  8vo.  $2.50. 

Complete  sets,  eight  vols.  in  a  box,  $18.00. 

THE  DOCTRINE  OF  ENDLESS  PUNISHMENT. 

Charles  W.  Shields ,  D.D. 

THE  FINAL  PHILOSOPHY,  As  Issuing  from  the  Harmony  of  Science  and  Relig¬ 
ion.  An  Historical  and  Critical  Introduction.  Second  edition  revised. 
8vo.  $3.00. 

This  is  perhaps  as  comprehensive ,  and  in  the  good  sense  as  ambitious  a 
treatise  as  has  been  written  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 


The  Religions  of  the  Undent  World 

Including  Egypt,  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  Persia,  India, 
Phoenicia,  Etruria,  Greece,  Rome. 

By  GEORGE  RAWLINSON,  M.A. 

- - # - - - 

One  Volume ,  12mo,  -  $l,OOa 

Uniform  with  “  The  Origin  of  Nations.” 

Canon  Ravvlinson’s  great  learning  and  his  frequent  contribu¬ 
tions  to  the  history  of  ancient  nations  qualify  him  to  treat  the 
subject  of  this  volume  with  a  breadth  of  view  and  accuracy  of 
knowledge  that  few  other  writers  can  lay  claim  to.  The  treatise 
is  not  intended  to  give  an  exhaustive  review  of  ancient  religions, 
but  to  enable  the  students  of  history  to  form  a  more  accurate 
apprehension  of  the  inner  life  of  the  ancient  world. 

“  The  historical  studies  which  have  elevated  this  author’s  works  to  the 
highest  position  have  made  him  familiar  with  those  beliefs  which  once  di¬ 
rected  the  world’s  thought ;  and  he  has  done  literature  no  better  service 
than  in  this  little  volume.  .  .  .  The  book  is,  then,  to  be  accepted 

as  a  sketch,  and* as  the  most  trustworthy  sketch  in  our  language,  of  the  re¬ 
ligions  discussed.” — N.  Y.  Christian  Advocate. 

THE  ORIGIN  OT  NATIONS 

By  Professor  GEORGE  RAWLINSON,  M.A. 


One  Volume,  12 mo ,  With  maps ,  -  -  $1,00, 


The  first  part  of  this  book,  Early  Civilizations,  discusses  the 
antiquity  of  civilization  in  Egypt  and  the  other  early  nations  of 
the  East.  The  second  part,  Ethnic  Affinities  in  the  Ancient 
World,  is  an  examination  of  the  ethnology  of  Genesis,  showing 
its  accordance  with  the  latest  results  of  modem  ethnographical 
science. 

“  An  attractive  volume,  which  is  well  worthy  of  the  careful  consideration 
of  every  reader.” — Observer. 

“  A  work  of  genuine  scholarly  excellence  and  a  useful  offset  to  a  great 
deal  of  the  superficial  current  literature  on  such  subjects.” 

—  Congregate onalist. 

“  Dr.  Rawlmson  brings  to  this  discussion  long  and  patient  research,  a 
vast  knowledge  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  wnat  has  been  written  on 
both  sides  of  the  question.” — Brooklyei  Union-A rgus. 

For  Sale  by  all  booksellers ,  or  sent,  post-paid,  upon  receipt  of  price ,  by 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS,  Publishers, 

743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


The  Religions  of  China . 

CONFUCIANISM  AND  TAOISM  DESCRIBED  AND  COM¬ 
PARED  WITH  CHRISTIANITY. 

By  JAMES  LEGGE, 

Professor  of  the  Chinese  Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

One  volume,  12mo,  -  -  $l.SO. 

Professor  Legge’s  work  is  by  far  the  most  simple  and  easily 
comprehended  exposition  of  Chinese  religions  that  exists,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  freedom  from  a  polemic  bias,  and  for  the 
easy,  confident  touch  of  a  man  whose  mind  is  saturated  with 
his  subject  and  at  home  in  every  branch  of  it. 


“The  entire  volume  deserves  a  wide  and  attentive  reading.” — Chicago  Tribune. 


“Prof.  Legge  is.  perhaps,  the  highest  authority  on  all  matters  connected  with  a 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese  literature  and  philosophy.”— Richmond  Central  Presby¬ 
terian. 

“  Prof  Legge’s  WOrk  is  a  remarkably  instructive  and  critical  contribution  to  our 
knowledge  of  the^ Chinese.” — St.  Louis  Central  Christian  Advocate. 

“  As  the  work  of  perhaps  the  first  of  scholars  in  all  that  pertains  to  China,  we  heartily 
commend  this  book.” — Bug ilo  Courier. 

“For  the  scholar  and  the  minister  who  desire  information  about  ^g°ns ?f 

study  of  comparative  religions.” — Boston  Daily  Journal. 

“Nowhere  else  is.  so  clear  a  detail  of  the  disti ,  ctive  features ,  and^. ^"^rgjraof 

the  Chinese  religions  given,  and  nowhere  else  are  the  con  r.  b  >■> _ 

them  and  the  Christian  religion  brought  within  a  more  compact  compas^^  yournal. 

“Prof.  Legge’s  philological  discussions  are  extremely !  12 

clo^e  and  fascinating.  Incidentally  he  gives  us  an  ins  g  duties  and  obligations 

lations  of  the  Chinese,  which  are  involved  in  and  governed  by  the  duties  aim  * 

imposed  by  religion.” — Waterbury  American. 

*,,*  For  sale  by  all  booksellers ,  or  sent ,  post-paid ,  upon  receipt  of 
trice ,  by 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS,  Publishers, 

743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


OUTLINES  OF  PRIMITIVE  BELIEF 

among  the  Indo-European  Eaces, 

By  CHARLES  FRANCIS  KEARY,  M. A,, 

of  the  British  Museum. 


One  vol.  crown  Svo -  $2.50, 


Mr.  Keary’s  Book  is  not  simply  a  series  of  essays  in  comparative  myth¬ 
ology,  it  is  a  history  of  the  legendary  beliefs  of  the  Indo-European  races 
drawn  from  their  language  and  literature.  Mr.  Keary  has  no  pet  theory  to 
establish  ;  he  proceeds  in  the  spirit  of  the  inquirer  alter  truth  simply,  and 
his  book  is  a  rare  example  of  patient  research  and  unbiased  opinion  in  a  most 
fascinating  field  of  exploration. 

“  We  have  an  important  and  singularly  interesting  contribution  to  our  knowledge 
of  pre-historic  creeds  in  the  Outlines  of  fire-historic  Belief  among  the  Indo-European 
Races ,  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Keary,  of  the  British  Museum.  No  contemporary  essayist  in 
the  field  of  comparative  mythology — and  we  do  not  except  Max  Muller — has  known 
how  to  embellish  and  illumine  a  work  of  scientific  aims  and  solid  worth  with  so  much 
imaginative  power  and  literary  charm.  There  are  chapters  in  this  volume  that  are  as 
persuasive  as  a  paper  of  Matthew  Arnold’s,  as  delightful  as  a  poem.  _  The  author  is 
not  only  a  trained  inquirer  but  he  presents  the  fruits  of  his  research  with  the  skill  and 
felicity  of  an  artist.” — New  York  Hun. 

“Mr.  Keary,  having  unusual  advantages  in  the  British  Museum  for  studying 
comparative  philology,  has  gone  through  all  the  authorities  concerning  Hindoo, 
Greek,  early  Norse,  modern  European,  and  other  forms  of  faith  in  their  early  stages, 
and  there  has  never  before  been  so  thorough  and  so  captivating  an  exposition  of  them 
as  that  given  in  this  book.” — Philadelfihia  Bulletin. 


THE  DAWN  OF  HISTORY. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  PRE-HISTORIC  STUDY. 

Edited  by  C0  F.  KEAUY,  M.A., 

OF  THE  BRITISH  MUSEUM. 


One  Volume,  12mo.,  -  $1.25. 


This  work  treats  successive’y  of  the  earliest  traces  of  man  in  the  re¬ 
mains  discovered  in  caves  or  Isewhere  in  different  parts  of  Europe  ;  of 
language,  its  growth,  and  the  story  it  tells  of  the  pre-historic  users  of  it ;  of 
the  races  of  mankind,  early  social  life,  the  religions,  mythologies,  and  folk- 
’  tales  of  mankind,  and  of  the  history  of  writing.  A  list  of  authorities  is 
appended,  and  an  index  has  been  prepared  specially  for  this  edition. 


The  book  may  be  heartily  recommended  as  probably  the  most  satisfactory 
summary  of  the  subject  that  there  is.” — Nation.  .  . 

“  A  fascinating  manual,  without  a  vestige  of  the  dullness  usually  charged  against 
scientific  works.  .  „  „  In  its  way,  the  work  is  a  model  of  what  a  popular  scientific 

work  should  be ;  it  is  readable,  it  is  easily  understood,  and  its  style  is  simple,  yet  dig¬ 
nified,  avoiding  equally  the  affection  of  the  nursery  and  of  the  laboratory. 

1  &  h  j  Bosto?t  Sat.  Eve.  Gazette. 

***  For  sale  by  all  booksellers ,  or  sene ,  post-paid  upon  receipt  of 
price ,  by 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS.  Publishers, 

743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


EPOCHS  OF  HISTORY 


“A  Series  of  concise  and  carefully  prepared  volumes  on  special 
eras  of  history.  Each  is  devoted  to  a  group  of  events  of  such 
importance  as  to  entitle  it  to  be  regarded  as  an  epoch.  Each 
is  also  complete  in  itself,  and  has  no  especial  connection  with 
the  other  members  of  the  series.  The  works  are  all  written 
by  authors  selected  by  the  editor  on  account  of  some  especial 
qualifications  for  a  portrayal  of  the  period  they  respectively 
describe.  The  volumes  form  an  excellent  collection,  especially 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  a  general  reader.” — CHARLES  KENDALL 
ADAMS ,  President  of  Cornell  University . 

“'The  ‘  Epochs  of  History  ’  seem  to  me  to  have  been  prepared  with 
knowledge  and  artistic  skill  to  meet  the  wants  of  a  large  number 
of  readers.  To  the  young  they  furnish  an  outline  or  compen¬ 
dium  which  may  serve  as  an  introduction  to  more  extended 
study.  To  those  who  are  older  they  present  a  convenient  sketch 
of  the  heads  of  the  knowledge  which  they  have  already  acquired.  < 
The  outlines  are  by  no  means  destitute  of  spirit,  and  may  be 
used  with  great  profit  for  family  reading,  and  in  select  classes 
or  reading  clubs.”—  NOAH  PORTER,  President  of,  Yale  College. 

“  It  appears  to  me  that  the  idea  of  Morris  in  his  Epochs  is  strictly 
in  harmony  with  the  philosophy  of  history — namely,  that 
great  movements  should  be  treated  not  according  to  narrow 
geographical  and  national  limits  and  distinction,  but  uni¬ 
versally,  according  to  their  place  in  the  general  life  of  the 
world.  The  historical  Maps  and  the  copious  Indices  are 
welcome  additions  to  the  volumes.” — Bishop  JOHN  F.  HURST, 
Ex -President  of  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 

“The  volumes  contain  the  ripe  results  of  the  studies  of  men  who 
are  authorities  in  their  respective  fields.”—  The  Nation. 

“To  be  appreciated  they  must  be  read  in  their  entirety;  and  we 
do  no  more  than  simple  justice  in  commending  them  earnestly 
to  the  favor  of  the  studious  public.” — The  New  York  World. 

The  great  success  of  the  series  is  the  best  proof  of  its  general 
popularity,  and  the  excellence  of  the  various  volumes  is  further 
attested  by  their  having  been  adopted  as  text-books  in  many  of 
our  leading  educational  institutions,  including  Harvard,  Cornell, 
Wesleyan,  Vermont,  and  Syracuse  Universities;  Yale,  Princeton, 
Amherst,  Dartmouth,  Williams,  Union,  and  Smith  Colleges;  and 
many  other  colleges,  academies,  normal  and  high  schools. 


EPOCHS  OF  MODERN  HISTORY. 

A  SERIES  OF  BOOKS  NARRATING  THE  HISTORY  OF 
ENGLAND  AND  EUROPE  AT  SUCCESSIVE  EPOCHS 
SUBSEQUENT  TO  THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA. 

Edited  by 

Edward  E.  Morris. 

Sixteen  volumes,  i6mo,  with  70  Maps,  Plans  and  Tables. 
Sold  separately.  Price  per  vol.,  $1.00. 

The  Set,  Roxburgh  style,  gilt  top,  in  box,  $16.00. 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES — England  and  Europe 
in  the  Ninth  Century.  By  the  Very  Rev.  R.W.  Church,  M.  A. 

THE  NORMANS  IN  EUROPE — The  Feudal  System  and  England 
under  Norman  Kings.  By  the  Rev.  A.  H.  Johnson,  M.A. 

THE  CRUSADES.  By  the  Rev.  G.  W.  Cox,  M.A. 

THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENETS — Their  Relation  to  the  History 
of  Europe  :  The  Foundation  and  Growth  of  Constitutional 
Government.  By  the  Rev.  Wm.  Stubbs,  M.A. 

EDWARD  III.  By  the  Rev.  W.  Warburton,  M.A. 

THE  HOUSES  OF  LANCASTER  AND  YORK— The  Conquest  and 
Loss  of  France.  By  James  Gairdner. 

THE  ERA  OF  THE  PROTESTANT  REVOLUTION.  By  Frederic 
Seebohm.  With  Notes  on  Books  in  English  relating  to  the 
Reformation.  By  Prof.  George  P.  Fisher,  D.D. 

THE  AGE  OF  ELIZABETH.  By  the  Rev.  M.  Creighton,  M.A. 

THE  THIRTY  YEARS’  WAR,  1618-1648.  By  Samuel  Rawson 
Gardiner. 

THE  PURITAN  REVOLUTION  ;  and  the  First  Two  Stuarts, 
1603-1660.  By  Samuel  Rawson  Gardiner. 

THE  FALL  OF  THE  STUARTS;  and  Western  Europe.  By  the 
Rev.  Edward  Hale,  M.A. 

THE  AGE  OF  ANNE.  By  Edward  E.  Morris,  M.A. 

THE  EARLY  HANOVERIANS — Europe  from  the  Peace  of  Utrechto 
the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  By  Edward  E.  Morris,  M.A. 
FREDERICK  THE  GREAT  AND  THE  SEVEN  YEARS’ WAR.  By 
F.  W.  Longman. 

THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  FIRST  EMPIRE.  By 
William  O’Connor  Morris.  With  Appendix  by  Andrew 
D.  White,  LL.D.,  Ex-Pres’t  of  Cornell  University. 

THE  EPOCH  OF  REFORM,  1830-1850.  By  Justin  McCarthy. 

These  volumes ,  read  consecutively ,  form  the  best  history  of 
Modern  Times. 


EPOCHS  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


A  SERIES  OF  BOOKS  NARRATING  THE  HISTORY  OF 
GREECE  AND  ROME,  AND  OF  THEIR  RELATIONS  TO 
OTHER  COUNTRIES  AT  SUCCESSIVE  EPOCHS. 

Edited  by 

Rev.  G.  W.  Cox  and  Charles  Sankey,  M.A. 

Eleven  volumes,  i6mo,  with  41  Maps  and  Plans. 

Sold  separately.  Price  per  vol.,  $1.00. 

The  Set,  Roxburgh  style,  gilt  top,  in  box,  $11.00. 

TROY— ITS  LEGEND,  HISTORY,  AND  LITERATURE.  By 

S.  G.  W.  Benjamin. 

THE  GREEKS  AND  THE  PERSIANS.  By  the  Rev.  G.  W.  Cox. 

THE  ATHENIAN  EMPIRE— From  the  Flight  of  Xerxes  to  the 
Fall  of  Athens.  By  the  Rev.  G.  W.  Cox. 

THE  SPARTAN  AND  THEBAN  SUPREMACIES.  By  Charles 
Sankey,  M.A. 

THE  MACEDONIAN  EMPIRE— Its  Rise  and  Culmination  to  the 
Death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  By  A.  M.  Curteis,  M.A. 

The  five  volumes  above  give  a  connected  and  complete  history 
of  Greece  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  death  of  Alexander. 

EARLY  ROME— From  the  Foundation  of  the  City  to  its  Destruc¬ 
tion  by  the  Gauls.  By  W.  Ihne,  Ph.D. 

ROME  AND  CARTHAGE— The  Punic  Wars.  By  R.  Bosworth 
Smith,  M.A. 

THE  GRACCHI,  MARIUS,  AND  SULLA.  By  A.  H.  Beesly,  M.A. 

THE  ROMAN  TRIUMVIRATES.  By  the  Very  Rev.  Charles 
Merivale,  D.D. 

THE  EARLY  EMPIRE— From  the  Assassination  of  Julius  Caesar 
to  the  Assassination  of  Domitian.  By  the  Rev.  W.  Wolfe 
Capes,  M.A. 

THE  AGE  OF  THE  ANTONINES— the  Roman  Empire  of  the 
Second  Century.  By  the  Rev.  W.  Wolfe- Capes,  M.A. 

The  six  volumes  above  give  the  History  of  Rome  from  the 
founding  of  the  City  to  the  death  of  Marcus  Amelius  Antoninus. 


EPOCHS  OF  MODERN  HISTORY. 

A  NEW  VOLUME  JUST  READY. 

THE  EARLY  HANOVERIANS.  By  Edward  E.  Morris, 
Professor  of  English  in  the  University  of  Mel¬ 
bourne,  Editor  of  the  Series. 

One  volume,  i2mo,  with  Nine  Maps  and  Three  Tables. 

Price,  $1.00. 

Though  the  name  of  this  volume  is  taken  from  English, History,  “The 
Early  Hanoverians,”  like  others  of  the  series,  is  devoted  largely  to  Con¬ 
tinental  affairs,  and  is,  in  fact,  a  brief  history  of  Europe  from  the  Peace  of 
Utrechto.the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  This  period,  itself,  so  full  of  interest,  is 
treated  with  the  same  vividness  and  charm  which  marked  the  author’s  former 
contribution  to.  the  series,  of  which  the  Hartford  Times  says  :  “Such  history, 
told  with  the  interest  of  a  story,  makes  the  most  lasting  impression  on  the 
memory  of  the  reader.” 

To  all  interested  in  Modern  History  this  volume  will  be  welcome  as  the 
best  brief  account  of  Europe  at  an  important  epoch,  and  to  readers  of  the 
series  it  will  have  an  additional  value,  as  filling  the  interval  between  the  “Age 
of  Anne,”  by  the  same  author,  and  “Frederick  the  Great,”  by  F.  W. 
Longman. 


EPOCHS  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

A  NEW  VOLUME  JUST  READY. 

THE  SPARTAN  AND  THEBAN  SUPREMACIES. 
By  Charles  Sankey,  M.A.,  late  Scholar  Queen’s 
College,  Oxford,  joint  Editor  of  the  Series. 

One  volume,  i6mo,  with  Three  Maps  and  Two  Plans. 

Price,  $1.00. 

The  period  of  history  covered  by  this  little  book  is  full  both  of  interest 
and  importance.  It  was  the  transition  period  from  the  glories  of  the  Athenian 
empire  to  the  degradation  of  the  Macedonian  conquest,  and  it  was  then  that 
Athens  numbered  Socrates  and  Xenophon  among  her  citizens.  As  descriptive 
of  the  time  of  these  writers,  or  as  a  text-book  to  accompany  their  study,  the 
book  is  invaluable. 

With  three  others  of  the  series — “The  Greeks  and  Persians,”  “The 
Athenian  Empire,”  and  “The  Macedonian  Empire” — it  makes,  perhaps, 
the  best  short  history  of  Greece,  and  one  particularly  adapted  to  the  general 
reader  and  the  class-room. 

Copies  of  the  above  two  volumes  will  be  supplied  in 
Roxburgh  style,  Maroon  or  Green,  to  those 
wishing  to  complete  their  sets. 

The  volumes  of  this  Series  ere  for  sale  by  all  booksellers ,  or 
will  be  sent,  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  price  by  the  publishers. 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 

743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


. 


- 


•t 


■ 


. 


K  . 


